Report creation date: 14.10.2008 - 11:49
Countr(y/ies): Spain
Chapter(s):
1,2,21,22,23,24,241,242,243,244,245,246,3,31,32,33,4,41,42,421,422,423,424,425,426,427,428,429,4210,43,5,51,511,512,513,514,515,516,517,518,519,52,53,531,532,533,534,535,536,537,538,539,5310,6,61,62,63,64,7,71,72,73,8,81,811,812,813,82,821,822,83,831,832,84,841,842,9,91,92
Spain/ 1. Historical perspective:
cultural policies and instruments
The development of democratic
cultural policies in Spain can not been understood without an awareness of the
long dictatorship period between 1939 and 1975. The victory of the Nationalists
in the Civil War of 1936 to 1939 ushered in the dictatorship of General Franco.
In a first period, academies and cultural institutions were purged, and many
scientists and artists were exiled abroad. The Press Act of 1938 imposed
censorship and state monopoly control over information. The single political
party controlled a powerful press and propaganda machine. The official culture
of Francoism combined fervent nationalism with equally fervent Catholicism. Its
artistic predilection was for traditional styles. It appealed to Spain's
imperialist past and expounded at great length on the brotherhood of the
Spanish-speaking people. A good
deal of the institutionalisation of regional cultures was undone, and the
social use of Peninsular languages other than Spanish was pushed aside.
"Evasion culture", comprising football, bullfighting, film, radio,
popular fiction and gossip magazines, provided the government with instruments
for social integration and the maintenance of political unawareness.
From the 1960s onwards, rigid press
and education policies began to soften. The new Press Act of 1966 was a
timid effort at deregulation. Provisions were made for the public funding of
cultural activities and support was given to selective avant-garde projects
such as the San Sebastian film festival, or Spanish participation in
international art biennials. Despite this, however, economic and cultural
developments opened a major divide between society's demands and what the
regime had to offer. The expanding gap was filled by the recovery of the
Spanish liberal-reformist tradition of the early 20th century, and with it,
although often in opposition, by a new culture of critical consciousness among
widening university and artistic circles.
Upon Franco's death in 1975, Spain
was a much more modern and open-minded country than its political regime.
Economic and educational development, together with the greater class
equilibrium obtained after the 1960s, explains the relaxed approach adopted by
Spaniards to the return of democracy and subsequent membership to the European
Community. In 1976-7, the first governments of the restored monarchy introduced
decisive reforms of the press laws. The Ministry of Information and Tourism was
closed, the state-run newspapers were shut down or sold off, and Radio
Nacional's monopoly on radio broadcasting ended. The Constitution of 1978 and
the charters of regional autonomy set up under its aegis, initiated a period of
freedom of the press and artistic expression, combined with greater state
activity in disseminating culture and in giving full recognition to the
cultural and linguistic diversity of Spain.
In 1977, the Ministry of Culture was
established, being given the responsibilities formerly held by the Ministry of
Education for the national heritage and fine arts. It also became responsible
for film, theatre, music and dance policies, until then the responsibility of
the Ministry of Information and Tourism. The Ministry stood by the principles
of neutrality of the state in cultural issues and recognised the plurality of
civil society. By means of international exhibitions, congresses, prizes and
appointments, much of the cultural heritage silenced by Francoism was
recovered, and the work of exiled artists and intellectuals recognised. The
work of the Ministry, and fundamentally from many city councils, was decisive
in developing the cultural infrastructure (museums, archives and libraries), in
protecting the country's cultural heritage, and promoting new or existing
cultural institutions (the National Orchestra, the National Ballet, the
National Drama Centre, the National Classical Theatre Company, etc.)
As from 1982, different Socialist
governments stressed the need for the state to be present in those areas where
private initiative was likely to be lacking. In the initial phase, up to 1986,
the central goal was to preserve the much-deteriorated historic and artistic
heritage (Historical Heritage Act, 1985), renovate theatres and
auditoriums, and subsidise artistic expression. It was found that the political
aims and the gradual transfer of responsibilities to the regional authorities
required that the Ministry be slimmed down and reorganised. It was in this
period that the Ministry of Culture was given its operational structure, which
has remained practically unchanged to this day (Decree of 24 April, 1985).
In a second phase, from 1986 to
1996, the authorities staged a series of events that brought their cultural
policies to the foreground of public attention. They included the inauguration
of museums and concert halls including: the Reina Sofía Museum and Art Centre,
the National Museum of Roman Art of Merida, 1986; the Concert Hall of Madrid,
1988; the Valencia Institute of Modern Art and the Modern Art Centre of the
Canary Islands, 1989; the Festival Hall of Cantabria, 1991; the Galician Centre
of Contemporary Art and the Thyssen-Bornemisza Art Collection, 1993; the
Museum of Contemporary Art of Barcelona and the Domus Museum of La Coruña, 1996.
In addition, a number of major international events were held, which had a
major cultural element, such as the Barcelona Olympics, the Seville Expo, the
Fifth Centenary of the Discovery of America and the Madrid European Cultural
Capital 1992. Plans were also made to promote the book publishing and the film
industry. Cultural networks were established and efforts made to raise the
level of professional expertise of artists and performers. Outside Spain, the
world began to recognise the recovery in the confidence of Spanish art and
culture and the authorities took steps to encourage this, culminating in 1991
with the establishment of the Cervantes Institute.
These were years of exuberant
artistic activity and freedom of expression, in which Spanish artists
brandished a dizzying array of political and cultural banners while their
international colleagues were welcomed to join in. The number of exhibitions,
concerts, festivals and summer schools responded to a deep-seated social need.
The turnout for cultural events rocketed, while publishing, the music and film
industries developed at breakneck speed. At the initiative of either the
central or the regional authorities, major urban refurbishments were designed
with museums, arts centres, and concert halls as their hubs.
This cultural explosion coincided
with, and to a certain extent masked, the lack of real resources: very few
public libraries; poor reading habits; indifferent conservation of cultural
properties; the low standard of much artistic training. The decentralised
structure of government often succeeded in recovering and strengthening
regional cultural diversity but did not always bring about a broader
participation in cultural events or improve the standards of artistic creation.
The expectations raised by private television, introduced in 1988, were dashed
by the banality of its content. The dichotomy of mass and avant-garde culture
and the loss of the political function held by creativity in the days of the
dictatorship soon became signs of the normalisation of Spanish culture after
1975.
The political regime enshrined in
the 1978 Constitution did much to encourage the cultural activities of both the
autonomous communities or regions and the municipal councils. The regions have
been very active in caring for their heritage and building new and imposing
amenities. In those regions with their own language, much cultural activity is
directed at recovering and developing the sense of regional identity,
particularly by means of statutory initiatives to protect these languages. The
local administrations, responsible for the bulk of national expenditure for
culture, were from the first democratic municipal elections in 1979 very active
in the use of culture and in recovering the streets and squares as public agora.
In 1996, the incoming
liberal-conservative government of the Popular Party merged the Ministry of
Culture with that of Education in a new Ministry with a State Secretariat for
Culture. Two different strategies could, in theory, support this decision: on
the one hand, the creation of a Commission for Cultural Affairs which would
promote culture as a priority area; on the other, the development of a closer
relationship between educational and cultural policy. In its second term
(2000-2004), the government added sports to the Ministry's responsibilities.
Despite changes to the status of the State Secretariat for Culture, its
organisational structure has remained remarkably unaltered since 1977.
The approach to cultural policy has
been to ensure the cultural neutrality of the state and to recognise regional
cultural diversity. While it may seem that an emphasis has been placed more on
"looking after the heritage", artistic creation has not suffered as a
consequence. The broad outlines of ministerial action remain the same:
protection and dissemination of Spain's historic heritage; management of the
great national museums, archives and libraries; promotion and dissemination of
film, theatre, dance and music.
During the Popular Party's two terms
in office (1996-2000 and 2000-2004), a large Investment Plan assisted the
reform and improvement of auditoriums, museums, archives and libraries, and
increased the public access to cathedrals, castles, religious buildings,
industrial architecture and natural landscapes. New technologies entered the
archives sector, and the Plan for the promotion of reading was part of an
effort to increase cultural participation. A large portion of the Ministry's
investment budget was allocated to Madrid's Paseo del Arte, including extensions
of the Prado, the Reina Sofía and the Thyssen-Bornemisza museums. Other
substantial investments were directed to the renovation of the National Museum
of Art of Catalonia and the Royal Theatre Opera House in Madrid and the Liceu
Opera House in Barcelona. Support to the film industry was expanded and
consolidated by a new Cinema Act (Act 15/2001), now in revision.
The deregulatory tendency of the
Popular Party's government led to efforts to involve the private sector in
major cultural initiatives. Management efficiency and operational autonomy were
the keywords in reorganising the Prado Museum and the Spanish National
Orchestra and Choir (2003), and in setting up bodies such as the two state
corporations for Spanish Cultural Action Abroad (SEACEX) and Cultural
Commemorations (SECC). New tax legislation was adopted to stimulate private
funding of cultural initiatives, such as the Sponsorship and Foundation Act of
2002.
The Socialist Party took office
following the General Elections in March 2004 and has reorganised the
government's ministerial structure (Royal Decree 1601/2004 on the Structure of the Ministry of
Culture). The Ministry of Culture has again been established as a
separate entity from the Ministry of Education, although it includes the same
departments as the former State Secretariat for Culture: the
Directorate-General for Fine Arts and Cultural Assets; the Directorate-General
for Books, Archives and Libraries; and the Directorate-General for Cultural
Cooperation and Communication. Other bodies, which previously depended on the
State Secretariat, have an independent status and a certain degree of operating
autonomy, although they remain under the umbrella of the new Ministry: the
Prado Museum, the Reina Sofía Museum and Art Centre, the National Library, the
National Institute of Cinematography and Audiovisual Arts and the National
Institute of Music and Performing Arts.
Spain/ 2. Competence,
decision-making and administration
2.1 Organisational structure
(organigram)
DG:
Directorate-General
SD-G:
Sub Directorate-General
AO:
Autonomous Organisation (self governing public bodies dependent on the
Ministry,
in which its director has the rank of General Director)
Regional Level - Autonomous
Communities
AUTONOMOUS |
DEPARTMENT |
VICE DEPARTMENT |
DIRECTORATES |
ANDALUSIA |
Culture |
Vice Department of Culture |
Secretariat for Technical Affairs D-G. for Cultural Assets D-G. for Cultural Promotion D-G. for Books, Bibliographic and
Documental Heritage D-G. for Museums |
ARAGON |
Education, Culture and Sports |
Vice Department of Culture |
Secretariat for Technical Affairs D-G. for Historical Heritage D-G. for Culture |
ASTURIAS |
Culture and Tourism |
|
Secretariat for Technical Affairs D-G. for Cultural Promotion and
Language Policy Agency for the Development of
Communication and Cultural Projects |
BALEARICS |
Education and Culture |
|
General Secretariat D-G. for Culture D-G. for Language Policy |
CANARIES |
Education, Universities, Culture
and Sports |
Vice Department of Culture and
Sports |
Secretariat for Technical Affairs D-G. for Books, Archives and
Libraries D-G. for Cooperation and Cultural
Heritage |
CANTABRIA |
Culture, Tourism and Sports |
|
General Secretariat D-G. for Culture |
CASTILE-LEON |
Culture and Tourism |
Vice Department of Culture |
General Secretariat D-G. for Historical Heritage and
Cultural Assets D-G. for Cultural Promotion and
Institutions |
CASTILE-LA MANCHA |
Culture |
|
General Secretary for Culture D-G. for Historical Heritage and
Museums D-G. for Cultural Promotion D-G. for Books, Archives and
Libraries |
CATALONIA |
Culture and Media |
|
General Secretary for Culture and
Media D-G. for Cultural Cooperation D-G. for Historical Heritage |
VALENCIAN COMMUNITY |
Culture and Sports |
Autonomous Secretary for Culture Sub Secretariat |
D-G. for Books, Archives and
Libraries D-G. for Valencian Heritage |
EXTREMADURA |
Culture and Tourism |
|
General Secretariat D-G. for Historical Heritage D-G. for Cultural Promotion |
GALICIA |
Culture and Sports |
|
General Secretariat D-G. for Creation and Cultural
Diffusion D-G. for Historical Heritage |
LA RIOJA |
Education, Culture and Sports |
|
Secretariat for Technical Affairs D-G. for Culture |
MADRID |
Culture and Tourism |
Vice Department of Culture and
Tourism |
Secretariat for Technical Affairs D-G. for Books, Museums and
Libraries D-G. for Cultural Promotion D-G. for Historical Heritage |
MURCIA |
Culture, Youth and Sports |
Autonomous Secretary for Culture |
General Secretariat D.G. for Fine Arts and Cultural
Assets D-G. for Books, Archives and
Libraries D-G. for Cultural Promotion |
NAVARRE |
Culture and Tourism |
|
Secretariat for Technical Affairs D-G. for Culture |
BASQUE COUNTRY |
Culture |
Vice Department of Culture, Youth
and Sports Vice Department of Language policy |
Directorate for Historical
Heritage
Directorate for the Promotion of
Euskera Directorate for the Coordination
of Euskera |
Spain/ 2. Competence,
decision-making and administration
2.2 Overall description of the
system
The 1978 Constitution created a new
administrative territorial division in Spain, with three administrative levels:
central government, autonomous communities or regions and municipal councils.
According to the areas of competence laid down in the Constitution, all three
levels have general responsibilities for culture. It also separates central
government responsibilities from regional responsibilities (see chapter
5).
The Ministry of Culture is the body
responsible for central government cultural policy (see chapter
1). Both national and regional administrations have lightweight structures.
The following sub-divisions make up the Ministry of Culture at the central
government level:
This lean organisational structure
is due to the fact that some cultural bodies (autonomous organisms) have an
independent legal status (legal entities of public law) and a certain degree of
operating autonomy (see chapter
7.2). Such is the case for e.g., the Prado Museum, the National Library or
the National Institute of Cinematography and Audiovisual Arts.
This is also the case in various
regions, e.g.:
Spain is divided into seventeen
autonomous communities or regions, which have broad powers in matters of
culture. In particular, the Constitution gives them both management and normative
control over those areas where public regulation of some kind is traditional:
museums, libraries, performing arts, handcrafts, etc. National museums,
libraries and archives remain under state control, although in most cases
responsibility for operating them is delegated to the regions. The involvement
of regional governments in cultural matters is greater in those communities
that have their own language and culture, particularly the so-called
"historic nationalities", i.e., those that first obtained
administrative autonomy: Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country. Some
communities -Andalusia, the Basque Country, and Castile-La Mancha - assign the
administration of cultural affairs to a single Department, while others have
opted for mixed bodies in which culture is administered jointly with education,
tourism, publicly owned media and sport.
At the municipal level, the Local
Regime Act 1985 gave city and town councils administrative powers over
local heritage, cultural activities and amenities, and "leisure
activities". The law states that population centres of over 5 000
inhabitants are obliged to provide library services and it allow the
municipalities to promote "complementary activities to those provided by
other government bodies and, in particular, those concerning culture". In
practice, local authorities have almost unlimited power to promote cultural
activities at the municipal level. Their proximity to the citizen and the
political rewards of such activities explain the huge expansion of local
cultural events up to the start of the 1990s. Today, the bulk of municipal
spending is on culture (see chapter
6).
Spain/ 2. Competence,
decision-making and administration
2.3 Inter-ministerial or
intergovernmental co-operation
In 2004 (R.D. 1194/2004, 14 May),
with the reorganisation of the government's ministerial structure, the Culture
Cabinet Committee responsible for overseeing inter-ministerial cooperation was
abolished. Since then, the Ministry of Culture coordinates its activities in
specific areas with the Ministries of Development, Environment and Industry,
Tourism and Trade. They include programmes such as the "One Per Cent for
Culture", set up jointly with the Ministries of Development and
Environment, and the "Internet at Public Libraries" programme set up
by the Ministry of Culture with the Ministry of Industry, Tourism and Trade.
Recently, to combat infringements of intellectual property rights, an
inter-sector Commission was set up, associated to the Ministry of Culture,
which has representatives from 11 ministries.
International cultural co-operation
is carried out jointly by the Ministry of Culture, and the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs and Cooperation. Both ministries are also present, in their own right,
on the boards of independent bodies such as the Cervantes Institute or the
State Corporation for Spanish Cultural Action Abroad (SEACEX).
The state is constitutionally
mandated to arrange for cultural communication among the different regions
"in collaboration with them". To do so, the central government set up
a specific unit (Sub-Directorate General of Communication with the Autonomous
Communities) under the wing of the Directorate-General for Cultural Cooperation
and Communication of the Ministry of Culture. The unit's task is to cooperate
with the regions in their cultural programmes, foster interregional communication
in the area; to disseminate the wealth and range of the regions' cultural
heritages; and exchange information about cultural policies. It is also
responsible for ensuring that the cultural diversity of Spain's regions is
fully appreciated abroad, a task that the unit carries out in co-operation with
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation and Spanish embassies and
consulates around the world.
In practice, the mechanisms for
coordinating central and regional government activities on cultural matters
have operated with different degrees of success. The Sectoral Conference on
Culture met once in the third legislature (1986-89), twice in the fourth
(1989-93) and in the fifth (1993-96) legislature, not once in the last two
(1996-2004) legislatures, and six in the present one. When appointed in 2004,
the new Minister of Culture aimed to launch a new phase of cultural
communication and institutional dialogue between the central and regional
governments, through the revitalisation of the Sectoral Conference on Culture.
Nevertheless, coordination between
central and regional administrations is also exercised via specialised bodies
such as the Heritage Council, the Museum Council or the Archives Council.
Recovering and preserving the
national heritage is where combined action by the different levels of
government has proven most fruitful. Spain is the second country in the world
with the largest number of individual sites classified as "world heritage
sites" by UNESCO. Since the beginning of the 1990s, there has been a
proliferation of cooperation agreements at different levels of government
mainly for major urban developments associated with the construction of
prestigious cultural monuments / sites. One example took place in early 2006
when the Ministry of Culture and the Autonomous government of Castile-Leon
signed an agreement to boost the development of the Ruta de la Plata
(the Silver Road) as a quality cultural itinerary. Another example was
initiated in July when the Ministry of Culture and the Autonomous governments
of Catalonia, Balearic Islands, Valencia and Aragon reached an agreement for
the constitution of the Archive Council of the Crown of Aragon.
As for relations among the regions
themselves, the level of information and technical exchange is extremely low.
Similarly, very little progress has been made in inter-regional and
national-regional co-ordination to project Spanish culture internationally. The
notable exception is the Ramon Llull Institute, promoting Catalan language and
culture abroad. This is a body set up by the Catalan government, with
cooperation from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation.
In terms of co-operation at the
municipal level, aside from the abovementioned examples involving central and
regional government and the councils of certain cities, mention should also be
made of the assistance provided by certain regional governments for local
townships. For example, the Island Councils of the Canaries and the Provincial
Councils of some regions, mainly the Basque Country and Catalonia, have
contributed to the development of inter-municipal cultural activities through
museums, libraries, archives and local theatre tours. Municipal culture
departments have also worked together with their colleagues responsible for urban
development, education or tourism. Beginning in the 1980s, a number of cities
initiated integrated development projects, covering urban development,
education, welfare and tourism and culture, often with the support of European
aid programmes for the reconstruction of city centres (Barcelona, Cadiz). Since
Agenda 21 for Culture was approved on 8 May 2004, a growing number of Spanish
cities and municipalities have adopted it at local government level. To promote
the principles enshrined in the document, the United Cities and Local
Governments (UCLG) has established a Working Group on Culture, which is chaired
by the Councillor for Culture of the Barcelona City Council.
Spain/ 2.4 International cultural
co-operation
2.4.1 Overview of main structures
and trends
Spain is involved in bilateral
cooperation in the area of cultural exchange with many countries and has a
growing number of new agreements designed to promote mutual understanding
between the signatories. Spain has signed cooperation agreements in the areas
of culture, education and science with numerous countries and, in order to
monitor their development, it organises regular Mixed Commissions in which the
corresponding executive programmes are defined. In Spain, the planning and
coordination of these agreements and programmes is the responsibility of the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation. The Ministry of Culture is
responsible for defining their cultural content and for management and
follow-up. The legal instruments devised by these Mixed Commissions are the
executive programmes of cultural cooperation, which are usually in force for
two or three years, though, on occasion, for only one year. These programmes
define the nature, content and calendar of the actions and exchanges that come
under the Ministry of Culture's areas of competence.
Multilateral cultural cooperation is
based, above all, on participation in the creation of cooperation agreements
and programmes in the cultural environment inside the international
organisations of which Spain is a member (see chapter
2.4.3).
Spain/ 2.4 International cultural
co-operation
2.4.2 Public actors and cultural
diplomacy
As is the case with most European
countries, the promotion of Spanish culture abroad is a joint endeavour between
the Ministry of Culture and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation.
Within the Ministry of Culture, the
Directorate-General for Cultural Cooperation and Communication, through the Sub
Directorate-General for International Cultural Co-operation, is responsible for
bilateral and multilateral programmes and treaties for promoting cultural
exchange. It also monitors Spain's participation in international cultural
organisations and co-ordinates the international activities of the various
units and semi-independent bodies within the Ministry itself.
Co-operation activities in the field
of the visual arts and participation in international forums and standing
bodies for the protection and appreciation of cultural heritage are carried out
by the Directorate-General for Fine Arts and Cultural Assets. These activities
are facilitated either directly or, depending on the event, indirectly through
the Prado Museum or the Reina Sofía Museum and Art Centre.
The Directorate-General for Books,
Archives and Libraries promotes foreign awareness of Spanish writers by
encouraging the translation of certain works. Under its auspices, the National
Library takes part in various joint projects with the central libraries of
other countries. The Institute of Cinematography and Audiovisual Arts looks
after the promotion of the Spanish film industry abroad. In addition to its
involvement in film co-productions, the Institute takes part in several
European / international programmes.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and
Cooperation is responsible for foreign cultural activities through its
Directorate-General for Cultural and Scientific Relations, which is part of the
Spanish Agency for International Co-operation (AECI - see also chapter
2.4.6). This unit also deals with cultural and scientific exchanges,
including grants and scholarships, as well as Spain's international
undertakings in this respect. It acts through Spanish embassies and consulates
or through AECI centres on foreign soil.
The Cervantes Institute, the
self-governing body set up in 1991, under the aegis of the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs and Cooperation, is entrusted with promoting the Spanish language and
culture internationally, for which it has 67 teaching centres in
non-Spanish-speaking countries. Representatives of the Ministry of Education
and Science, and the Ministry of Finance, also sit on its board.
Cultural activities abroad also rely
on institutions such as:
Cultural activities carried out
abroad by the autonomous governments have increased significantly over recent
years. The Valencian community has been one of the most active in artistic
promotion. Andalusia emphasises cultural cooperation with its southern
neighbour, Morocco. In 1992, the government of Catalonia set up the Catalan
Consortium of External Promotion of Culture (COPEC), today part of the
Institute of Creative Industries, to promote a Catalan presence in foreign
markets. Those regions with significant numbers of overseas emigrants, notably
Galicia, have encouraged exchanges, particularly in the area of music and
dance. Communities bordering on Portugal or France often engage in cultural
exchanges within the framework of EU regional policies and programmes. More and
more communities are using cultural exchanges as spearheads for the promotion
of trade and tourism.
To a lesser extent, some cities (or
other bodies, such as universities) have contributed to international
co-operation, often within the framework of the European Union (town twinning,
Eurocities, Eurorégion Culturelle, ACRE, etc.), but also in an Iberoamerican
context, with the Interlocal-Iberoamerican Network of Cities for Culture. In
the last decade, some major cultural and urban regeneration projects involving
the government at various levels have had major international impact: the
Barcelona Olympic Games, the Seville Expo (1992); the Guggenheim Museum in
Bilbao (1997); Salamanca as European Cultural Capital (2002); the first
Universal Forum of Cultures in Barcelona (2004); the Saragossa Expo (2008).
In the field of cultural education
and training, the Ministry of Culture, through the Directorate-General of
Cultural Cooperation and Communication, has also signed agreements with foreign
institutions to promote Spanish culture abroad. An example of this type of
agreement is those undertaken with foreign universities to promote the work of
Hispanics in the respective countries. Annually, these programmes allow the
joint funding of a series of projects and publications with the common aim of
promoting Spanish culture abroad. Universities that participate in these
programmes include those in the United States, Japan (via the "Baltasar
Gracian" programme), the Philippines and Germany.
The Fulbright Scholarships
have provided funding for Spanish arts students, in the US, since 1994.
The Ministry of Culture, through its
Sub Directorate-General for International Cultural Cooperation, also manages a
variety of programmes for training cultural professionals. Grants awarded for
the training of specialists in various areas of culture in the Spanish-speaking
countries already have a long tradition. The Sub Directorate-General also
provides support for Spanish artists wishing to specialise abroad.
State policy for cultural promotion
abroad is implemented through the programme entitled Cooperation, promotion
and cultural diffusion abroad, run by the Ministries of Foreign Affairs and
Cooperation, Culture and Education and Science. In 2005, those Ministries
allocated more than 95 million euro, mainly through the activities of the
Cervantes Institute. Three quarters of this sum came from the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs. In view of these figures, and bearing in mind the aims of the
Institute, it is clear to see that the Spanish language is a key instrument in
the promotion and diffusion of Spanish culture abroad. This strategy of
promotion is reinforced by the activities of the Ministry of Education and
Science which, though at a lower level, provides resources in support of
language. For its part, the Ministry of Culture, which funds nearly 18% of the
program, has a more varied range of objectives, mainly in the promotion of
cultural activities.
The evolution of the resources made
available over the 2002-2005 period, reflects the importance of cultural
promotion abroad: these resources have grown 23% over the four years, compared
with an increase in the state budget overall of 16.6%. Again we should stress
the role of the Cervantes Institute which has been the major focus of Spain's
cultural policies abroad - a fact that underlines the importance of language as
a key asset in international markets.
Spain/ 2.4 International cultural
co-operation
2.4.3 European / international
actors and programmes
The cultural activities related to
international bodies range from participation in international meetings called
by the organisations of which Spain is a member, to the evaluation and
follow-up of the various agreements, programmes and activities, in the
framework of these international bodies.
In the case of the European Union,
of which Spain has been a member since 1986, the Directorate-General of
Cultural Cooperation and Communication performs the following tasks through its
Sub Directorate-General of International Cultural Cooperation: preparation for
the meetings of the Council of Ministers of Education, Youth and Culture of the
European Union; participation in the Cultural Affairs Committees (CAC);
collaboration with the
Directorate-General of Education and Culture of the European Commission;
dissemination of the information produced by the European Union, in the area of
culture, among the various units of the Ministry of Culture; participation in
the management of the Programme Culture 2000, representing the Ministry on the
Programme's management committee and follow-up; and dissemination of the
activities and projects undertaken in the area of culture by the institutions
of the European Union, in particular the European
Commission and the European Parliament.
Other European programmes in which
Spain participates are: in the cinema and audiovisual sector, the MEDIA Plus
Programme (2001-2005), EURIMAGES, European Film Promotion and the European
Audiovisual Observatory; and in the sector of heritage protection, Spain's
participation in the European project HEREIN, the European Heritage Meeting and
the Minerva Project.
Spain's cultural cooperation with
UNESCO, of which Spain has been a member since 1953, involves the following
tasks: coordination and liaison between the Ministry of Culture, the Spanish
Embassy at UNESCO and UNESCO itself, with regard to the development of UNESCO's
Conventions and Recommendations; preparation of the participation of the
Ministry of Culture in the General Conference and the Inter-governmental
Conferences, expert committees and other meetings at UNESCO; coordination and
liaison between the National Cooperation Commission and UNESCO, and participation
in, and follow-up and dissemination of, UNESCO's activities.
In the case of the Organisation of
Iberoamerican States (OEI), of which Spain has been a member since 1949, the
Directorate-General of Cultural Cooperation and Communication coordinates the
participation of the Ministry of Culture at the Iberoamerican Conferences of
the Ministers of Culture, in the framework of the Iberoamerican summits. In
June 2005, the VIII Iberoamerican Conference of Culture was held in Cordoba
(Spain), which culminated in the Declaration of Cordoba, a document that
stressed the need to "promote and protect the cultural diversity that
underpins the Iberoamerican Community of Nations", and to search for
"new mechanisms of cultural cooperation between Iberoamerican countries
able to strengthen the identities and the wealth of our cultural diversity and
promote intercultural dialogue". At the same meeting, the Heads of State
and government at the XV Iberoamerican Summit were urged to work together on
the production of a Cultural Charter for Iberoamerica
which would reinforce the common cultural space that defines all
Iberoamerican countries. This Charter was finally adopted in November 2006 as
part of the XVI Iberoamerican Summit.
The MARCO programmes organised by
the Ministry of Culture and the OEI, which are currently underway, cover
practically all of the cultural sectors. In the area of books, archives and
libraries, there are the ABINIA (to develop national libraries in Iberoamerican
countries), ADAI (to develop Iberoamerican archives and the formation of a
Network of Iberoamerican Archives), RILVI (to develop an integrated book
repertoire for sale in Iberoamerican countries) and PICBIP (to promote
cooperation in the field of public libraries). In all these MARCO programmes,
(ABINIA, ADAI, RILVI and PICBIP) the cultural sectors are promoted via grants
for projects and the training of specialists. In the cinema and audiovisual
sector, the most important programme is IBERMEDIA, which aims to establish an
Iberoamerican audiovisual space by promoting the co-production and distribution
of cinema and TV films in Spanish and Portuguese. In the area of fine arts and
cultural assets, Spain supports the application of the"Qhapaq Ñan
Trail" for inclusion in the World Heritage List. In the sector of
performing arts and music, the IBERESCENA programme aims to create and
consolidate a theatre and dance network in its member states, in the
Spanish-speaking countries, via grants, subsidies and other means. Finally, in
the area of intellectual property, the cooperation activities have centred
fundamentally on training in copyright and similar rights, through the FIPI programme.
Since 1982, Spain has also been a
signatory to the Andrés Bello Agreement, an intergovernmental organisation that
works to achieve the educational, scientific and cultural integration of
Bolivia, Colombia, Cuba, Chile, Ecuador, Spain, Panama, Peru and Venezuela. The
area of culture offers a number of programmes, notably We are Heritage,
which aims to conceptualise, evaluate and disseminate natural heritage.
As regards the Council of Europe, of
which Spain has been a member since 1977, the Sub Directorate-General of
International Cultural Cooperation, in conjunction with the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs and Cooperation, is responsible for the follow-up and organisation of
Spain's participation in the events that the Council of Europe sponsors, either
directly or indirectly. The Ministry of Culture is currently responsible for
implementing the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the
Diversity of Cultural Expressions. On 28 April 2006, the government
approved the text of the Convention and presented it to the Parliament for
ratification. The instrument of ratification was deposited on 18 December 2006.
On the 25th October 2006, it was approved and ratified by the King of Spain,
one month later of being approved by the Senate.
Spain/ 2.4 International cultural
co-operation
2.4.4 Direct professional
co-operation
The International Theatre
Institute of the Mediterranean (IITM), set up in 1991, aims to
promote the production of performing arts, and other cultural projects, that
develop and represent Mediterranean culture in all its forms. It fosters
cultural exchange and solidarity among Mediterranean peoples. The work that
IITM carries out has led to the creation and maintenance of a network involving
24 countries: 15 in Europe, 6 in Africa and 3 in the Eastern Mediterranean.
IITM's work has been recognised by UNESCO, which incorporated it in its
Mediterranean Programme. It has also gained the sustained support of the
European Commission and the Spanish Ministries of Culture and Foreign Affairs
for many of its activities, and the support of the Autonomous Communities of
Madrid, Andalusia, Valencia, Extremadura and Castile-La Mancha.
Spain/ 2.4 International cultural
co-operation
2.4.5 Cross-border intercultural
dialogue and co-operation
One of the most important actors in
the dialogue between the European Union and the other Mediterranean countries
is the European Institute of the Mediterranean. This institute, based in
Barcelona (Catalonia), is a centre for reflection and debate on Mediterranean
societies, a think-tank specialising in Euro-Mediterranean relations and a
promoter of cooperation. The Institute is led by a Governing Board, with
the participation of the Government of Catalonia, the Spanish Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, and Barcelona City Council; a Board of Trustees, formed
by companies, universities and institutions from civil society, and an Advisory
Council made up of important Mediterranean personalities. The Institute
promotes knowledge through research and study; carries out training and
promotion activities; encourages the participation of civil society in the Euro-Mediterranean
Partnership (also called the Barcelona Process, the main framework
for political, economic, and social relations, as well as dialogue and regional
co-operation, in the Mediterranean) and promotes Catalan and Spanish
institutions in the Mediterranean; it promotes and participates in development
cooperation projects; works in favour of Mediterranean networks; organises
exhibitions and cultural activities; publishes books and periodicals and acts
as an observer of the general situation in the Mediterranean. The Institute was
set up by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation as the Coordinator of
the Spanish Network of the Anna Lindh Euro-Mediterranean Foundation. This
Foundation is the first institution created by the 35 countries of the Euro-Mediterranean
Partnership, with the objective of improving reciprocal understanding and
the quality of cultural dialogue between the two sides of the Mediterranean.
The Anna Lindh Euro-Mediterranean Foundation encourages cultural dialogue,
supports exchanges, cooperation and mobility, particularly among the young, and
organises activities within the framework of the Euro-Mediterranean
Partnership. Conceived as a "network
of networks", the Anna Lindh Euro-Mediterranean Foundation comprises
35 networks from different countries. The Spanish network is formed by 32
members, representing organisations from civil society.
The Europa Diversa Network is
a virtual organisation for people and institutions dedicated to understanding,
discussing and developing cultural diversity within the framework of the new
Europe. Among its founder members are: the Jaume Bofill Foundation, the European Institute of the
Mediterranean, the Open University of Catalonia, the International Centre "Escarré" for Ethnic
Minorities and Nationalities (CIEMEN) and the Interculture-UNESCO
Association for the promotion of intercultural dialogue in Catalonia. The
general objective is to contribute, from the perspective of Catalonia, to the
construction of Europe in terms of cultural diversity. With this aim, Europa
Diversa Network organises symposiums and seminars.
The Interarts Foundation (European
Observatory for Cultural Research and International Cultural Cooperation), a
cultural think tank and an observatory for cultural policies, aims to foster
cultural dialogue and the exchange of expertise, devising strategies for
creative cities and cultural entrepreneurs. Established in 1995, as an
independent association through an agreement between Catalan authorities, the
Council of Europe and international partners, Interarts combines the
advantages of a versatile independent body with a strong international presence
and commitment to the public domain. To meet its objectives, Interarts provides
services that range from the provision of policy advice to public institutions
and private entrepreneurs from the cultural sector, to the stimulation of
international cultural cooperation through networks, agents and civil society,
and rigorously applied research in fields such as Cultural Rights, Culture and
Socio-Economy, or Cultural Governance.
The Three Mediterranean Cultures
is a non-profit foundation which, in recent years, has become the international
benchmark for dialogue and respect for achieving peace and understanding
amongst the people of the world, thanks to the exceptional nature of the
patronage and its cultural activities. The Foundation was established under the
aegis of the Andalusian Regional Government and the Kingdom of Morocco, who in
1998 broached the need to create a forum to bring together the people of the
Mediterranean. This proposal was favourably received by the international
community, with the support of the Peres Centre for Peace, the Palestinian
National Authority, and multiple Israeli and Euro-Mediterranean individuals and
institutions committed to dialogue and peace. Since March 1999, when the Three
Cultures Foundation was established, the three main priorities in its
day-to-day activity and cultural schedule have been: co-operation within the
Mediterranean region and between Andalusia and Morocco, the Middle East, and
the European Union and the Mediterranean countries. The Foundation believes
that Mediterranean co-operation is more important today than at any other time;
hence, the ever-increasing co-operation between Andalusia and Morocco is one of
the main areas of action for the Foundation. The Foundation has also become a
valuable tool for dialogue and networking, capable of bringing together the
current and future concerns of society regarding the Middle East region. The
European Union, and its activities in the Mediterranean region, is the third
area of action of the Three Cultures Foundation. The privileged
relationship between the European Union and third party Mediterranean countries
has made the Foundation into an instrument for political actions and project
development within the scope of Mediterranean co-operation.
See also chapter
2.4.3 and chapter
4.2.3.
For more information, see our Intercultural Dialogue section.
Spain/ 2.4 International cultural
co-operation
2.4.6 Other relevant issues
Much of the activity for the
development of culture is channelled through the Spanish Agency for
International Co-operation (AECI), created in 1988 to manage Spanish policy on
international cooperation and development. The AECI is an autonomous body
affiliated to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation through the
Secretary of State for International Cooperation. The agency is responsible for
the design, execution and management of projects and programmes of cooperation
for development, either directly, using its own resources, or via cooperation
with other domestic or international bodies and non-governmental development
organisations. To perform its work, the AECI has a large external structure,
with 37 Technical Cooperation Offices, 12 Cultural Centres and 3 Training
Centres in countries where the agency carries out its main cooperation
projects. Among the agency's cooperation programmes of particular interest are,
the Spanish Cooperation Heritage Programme, the Programmes of Regional Cooperation in Central America -
addressed, for example, to promote sustainable tourism and education -, the Equal Opportunities Programme for Men and Women, the Indigenous Programme, and the
Acerca programme - especially addressed to provide qualifications for the
development of the cultural sector. The latest Master Plan for Spanish
Cooperation 2005-2008 presents a major breakthrough in the treatment of
culture as a dimension of development cooperation, which is evidenced by the
desire for greater specificity and concreteness, in line with a new context on
current trends of relationships among culture and development and a conceptual
progress of organisms such as UNDP and UNESCO. In this framework, the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation just introduced the first Strategy for
Culture and Development of the Spanish Cooperation.
Spain has a long tradition of
emigration. Today more than 1 500 000 Spanish nationals live abroad
permanently. To cater for the needs of this group, Spain has a network of
consular offices dependent on the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation,
with 159 Consular Offices and Consular Sections at Embassies, and around 500
Honorary Consulates and Vice-consulates. The government recently approved the
"Statute for Spanish citizens abroad" (Act 40/2006, 14 December
2006) which aims to guarantee the free exercise of constitutional rights
and duties among Spanish nationals living in foreign countries, with equal
status to Spanish residents, and to strengthen social, cultural, economic and
linguistic ties with Spain and with emigrants´ countries and communities of
residence.
Spain/ 3. General objectives and
principles of cultural policy
3.1 Main elements of the current
cultural policy model
Spanish cultural policy has
undergone profound and rapid changes since 1977. The present model combines the
determination of the state to foster culture, with a massive decentralisation
of administrative tools, in accordance with the rules for the territorial
government laid down in the Constitution of 1978. The current trend is now
heading towards increasing the involvement of private enterprise and civil
society in running the country's culture.
The desire of the state to
participate in cultural activities is evident at all levels of government,
central, regional and local. The state:
This tutelage goes hand-in-hand with
a desire to attain the much-sought-after "European standard" in terms
of cultural supply and demand.
The decentralisation of Spanish
cultural policy operates on the basis of competition among the different levels
of government. The central government holds exclusive responsibility for
protecting cultural property against export, for creating legislation to
protect copyright, and for overseeing the basic rules on freedom of expression,
creation and communication, and regulating the means of communication (radio,
television and the press) solely to the extent that such freedoms are
threatened. At the same time it retains the ownership of certain major cultural
institutions, such as museums, archives and libraries, even if their
administration is sometimes delegated to the regions.
The regions led the radical
decentralisation of cultural policy, in which three phases can be traced:
The high-water mark of
decentralisation can be seen in the mid 1990s. From then on cities took on the
bulk of responsibility for cultural promotion and dissemination, as is
evidenced by the two European Capitals of Culture, Santiago de Compostela in
2000, and Salamanca, in 2002.
The only statutory obligation to
which municipal authorities are subject is that of providing libraries where
the inhabitants number more than 5 000. In practice, however, local authority
involvement in cultural activities now accounts for over 50% of all public
spending at all levels on culture. A distinction should be drawn between the
bigger cities (Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Valladolid, Bilbao, Seville,
Oviedo, Salamanca, A Coruña, Santiago de Compostela), capable of funding major
projects and activities, and the medium-sized and smaller towns, which must
make do with providing the basics (libraries) and supporting patron-saint
festivals and other strictly local events; the competitive model, on which
responsibility for cultural affairs is based.
As a result of this experience a
number of reforms are underway. In the last few years, as provision of cultural
activities became more professional, efforts have been made to make support for
culture more flexible, drawing from resources at all three levels of
government. At the political level, liberals and some conservatives argue for a
greater role for private enterprise in the organisation of cultural events. In
terms of power, the Popular Party (1996-2004) questioned the existing model and
set its sights on more popular participation in the configuration of collective
symbolic production. This was the background to legislative changes (see chapter
2 and chapter
5) introduced in that period aimed at obtaining private funds for certain
cultural activities.
Spain/ 3. General objectives and
principles of cultural policy
3.2 National definition of culture
Nowhere is "culture"
defined in cultural policy documents. As the Ministry notes in the introduction
to one of its periodic reports on cultural legislation, "the concept of
culture as expressed in the Constitution of 1978 is extremely loose and
flexible".
From a technical standpoint, when
collecting statistical information on different areas of cultural activity, the
Ministry says, "the acknowledged European standard is used as the
guideline telling us both which cultural sectors and sub sectors to include and
how performance is to be measured [...] including the following: public
libraries, public archives, artistic and architectural cultural properties,
book and journal publishing, the visual, performing and musical arts, classical
music and the audiovisual arts".
One source which defines the
boundaries of culture is the Constitution of 1978. Articles 148 and 149
establish the scope of the areas of competence of the regional communities
which are also reflected in the regional charters. In bilingual regions,
recovery, conservation and promotion of the native language have been added.
See also chapter
5.1.1 and chapter
5.1.2.
Spain/ 3. General objectives and
principles of cultural policy
3.3 Cultural policy objectives
The Constitution of 1978 entrusts
the public authorities with specific tasks in the field of culture, noting that
these duties are "essential attributes" before listing a number of
areas which comes closest to a definition of the objectives of cultural policy
(see chapter
5).
To judge from the political
statements of central and regional governments over recent years, together with
the accounts of public spending on cultural activities, the main objectives of
Spanish cultural policy are conservation and promotion of cultural heritage and,
in second place, cultural creativity understood as cultural heritage in
development.
If we analyse recent cultural
policies in terms of the cultural policy principles defined by the Council of
Europe (http://www.coe.int/t/e/cultural_co-operation/culture/), we
immediately see that promotion of national identity is not an explicit
objective of the central government, although affirmation of a
"shared" identity is implicit in numerous aspects of educational and
cultural policy, particularly in terms of the dissemination of Spanish cultural
policy abroad. The case is somewhat different among the autonomous regions, particularly
with those having separate language environments where promotion of regional
identity is the main vehicle for articulating cultural policy.
In terms of recognising diversity,
the very way the Spanish state is organised territorially is an admission of
the cultural diversity of the country. Linguistic and cultural plurality is
expressly protected by the Constitution of 1978, both in the preamble and in
its articles. It is equally guaranteed in the charters of the autonomous
regions. Protection of diversity has therefore, so far, been interpreted by
looking internally at the individual traits of the various cultures comprising
modern-day Spain. Only recently, as a result of the dramatic increase in
immigration, has recognition of another form of cultural diversity beyond
national borders been included on the cultural policy agendas at regional and,
especially, municipal levels, as another part of the social integration of
immigrant groups.
Support for cultural creativity is
articulated as an aim of cultural policy along three main axes: statutory
protection of intellectual property and copyright; the teaching of creative
arts; and specific measures to promote the work of creative artists themselves.
One official publication of the Ministry of Culture admits that, "in any
cultural policy, support for creativity is one of the essential but, equally,
one of the most difficult objectives. The creative process is a highly personal
affair involving the most intimate levels of personal consciousness; not
somewhere the state can best wield its organisational powers. What the state
can, and we believe should do is to create the right conditions ...".
Applying this logic, measures to encourage cultural creativity, aside from
grants, prizes and subsidised training, are to focus on patronage, "a
facet of our society intimately linked with the creative process".
Access to culture is one of the
prime objectives of recent Spanish cultural policy (see Articles 9 and
44 of the 1978 Constitution). Indeed, it is the main motive for public
involvement in cultural affairs. However, generating demand, outside the sphere
of mass culture, turned out to be somewhat more complex than initial
enthusiasts would have had us believe. Equally, the democratisation of culture,
understood as the citizens' right to have their say on how the cultural life of
their communities is defined, leaves considerable room for development in the
search for a fully rounded Spanish cultural policy.
Spain/ 4. Current issues in cultural
policy development and debate
4.1 Main cultural policy issues and
priorities
The action of the central
administration since 2004, with the political mandate of the Socialist Party,
has focused on three central objectives: the acknowledgement of cultural
diversity, the strengthening of co-operation and the consideration of culture
as a tool for economic development and social cohesion.
However, the appointment of a new
Minister of Culture at the beginning July 2007, six months before the end of
the current term of government, suggests changes in government policy and
action. Thus, the framework of the "Cultural Institution Modernisation
Plan" (September 2007) envisages changes in governing mechanisms and in
the management of "core" cultural institutions such as the National
Library or the Reina Sofia Museum and Art Centre. In order to quell the unrest
in various cultural sectors and overcome some of the obstacles that have
emerged under the present government, the new Minister has established the
following aims for the coming months:
Despite these central administration
priorities, as we know, many of the responsibilities for culture in Spain lie
with the regional authorities. Also, as in most developed countries, the local
authorities assume a growing role in public cultural provision. The central
government is, therefore, left with a limited scope of responsibility in terms
of public policy making, though it has considerable weight in underlying policy
through its constitutional mandate and its control of culture vis-à-vis foreign
policy, not to mention its continued control over the best known and most
influential cultural institutions.
Spain/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and
debates
4.2.1 Cultural minorities, groups
and communities
Spain's transition to a democratic model
has been based on the recognition of territorial cultural diversity. Understood
in this sense, "territorial cultural diversity" becomes the reverse
of "cultural minorities". The fact that the change from a country of
emigrants to a country of immigrants is a recent phenomenon may help explain
why a debate has yet to be held on a cultural policy for minorities, although
some aspects of integration are now being touched upon regarding education,
citizenship, customs, security, etc.
According to the Statistical
Yearbook on Immigration (Ministry for Employment and Social Affairs), on 31
December 2006, the number of foreign residents in Spain was
3 021 808, an increase of 10.3% on the previous year. As regards the
distribution by continent of origin, the largest group comprised those from
Latin America (35.25%), followed by Africa (23.48%), nationals of European
Union member states (21.88%), the rest of Europe (12.17%), Asia (6.55%), North
America (0.6%) and Oceania (0.006%). According to country of origin, at the end
of 2006, the largest immigrant community was from Morocco (543 721
persons), followed by Ecuador (376 233), Colombia (225 504), Romania
(211 325) and the UK (175 870). As for its evolution over the
previous year, the greater numerical increases have corresponded to the
Moroccans (50 607 persons), British (26 799), Colombians
(21 156), Romanians (19 191) and Ecuadorians (19 168).
The main aim of the government's
immigration policy (implemented by the Secretariat of State for Immigration and
Emigration) is to derive the maximum benefit for society as a whole. The policy
applies to all foreigners resident in Spain, regardless of their nationality.
The Forum for the Social Integration of Immigrants, a collegial
organisation attached to the Ministry for Employment and Social Affairs,
through the Secretary of State for Immigration and Emigration, was set up to
aid the integration of immigrants who reside legally in Spain. According to Article 70
of Organic Act 4/2000, of 11 January 2000, on the rights and liberties of
foreign nationals in Spain and their social integration, the Forum for the
Social Integration of Immigrants is the consulting, informing and advising
entity for Spain's national government and, when appropriate, for the
autonomous regional and local governments in matters of immigration.
The cross-sectional nature of
immigration has meant that various ministries (education, labour, health and
social services, etc.) have drawn up specific regulations for the access of
these groups to education, employment, health and accommodation. Of these
projects, the most important is the Action Plan on Social Inclusion (2001-2003,
2003-2005, 2005-2006, 2006-2008) which stresses the need to aid the
socio-professional integration of immigrant groups, especially women, who are
often at a disadvantage. It also stresses the need to improve the quality of
life in the gypsy community, which is threatened by social exclusion. With the
general aim of promoting social cohesion and built with the maximum institutional
and social participation, in February 2007 the government approved the
Strategic Plan on Citizenship and Integration (2007-2010). Addressed to all of
the population, autochthonous and immigrants, the Plan recognises equal rights
and duties for everyone, equality of opportunities and respect for diversity.
The Plan also wants to consolidate among immigrants a consciousness of
belonging to the Spanish community. In that sense, the Plan is aimed to foster
among immigrants greater understanding and respect for the common values of the
EU, the rights and duties of residents in Spain, the official languages used in
different Communities and the social rules of Spanish society.
One of the strictly cultural
projects undertaken by the government in this field is the agreement signed by
the Ministry of Culture and ten NGOs, in late 2004, to promote reading among
immigrants living in Spain, in their own languages. Among the specific methods
mentioned in the agreement, the most significant are the campaigns to heighten
awareness in the immigrant population of the importance of reading, information
campaigns to promote the use of libraries and other cultural services, reading
workshops, artistic activities related to the world of books, and the use of
the NGOs' cooperation networks.
In April 2006, the Ministry of
Culture supported the creation of the Institute of Gypsy Culture, to
support the community of gypsies, which has maintained its own identity in
Spain since its entrance in the XV century. At present, this community
represents a 1.5% of the Spanish population. The main aim of the Institute is
to contribute to harmonious relations between the various groups and cultures
present in Spanish culture, paying special attention to equality of opportunity
and to combating discrimination on grounds of gender or race. The Institute
also supports the development and promotion of gypsy history, culture and
language in all its manifestations, and contributes to its dissemination
through research, publications and the organisation of academic and cultural
events.
The Network of Spanish Jewish
Cities is a non-profit making public association with the goal of
protecting all facets of Sephardic Heritage in Spain. Its members promote
cultural and academic projects, sharing their experiences and organising events
in Spain and abroad and designing policies of sustainable cultural tourism in
their cities.
In Spain, there are many actions
that promote culture and artistic creation as an "instrument" for the
social integration of immigrant communities and cultural minorities, and as a
"bridge" between these groups and the host population. Among their
various objectives, the following are most important:
Spain/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and
debates
4.2.2 Language issues and policies
The language issue is an important
one in Spain by virtue of the recognition both in the Constitution of 1978 and
in the regional charters of 6 communities: Catalonia, the Basque Country,
Galicia, the Balearics, Valencia and Navarre. In these regions, the local
language and Castilian coexist as official languages and a system of bilingual
education operates (see also chapter
5). This recognition is the cornerstone of Spanish cultural
diversity.
The challenges experienced since the
initial recognition of "other Spanish languages" (Article 3.2 of
the Spanish Constitution of 1978) fall into three broad categories. The
first is in defining the borderline between linguistic and cultural policy,
particularly with respect to intervention by the authorities in the culture
industries of bilingual communities. The second problem relates to exchange
between the different cultures within the state and the thin line between
protection of the regional language by regional authorities and intervention to
the detriment of the national official language. A third problem has arisen
from the recent influx of immigrants, in deciding which language should be used
to integrate them socially in the host country (see also chapter
8.3.2).
Spain/ 4.3 Recent policy issues and
debates
4.2.3 Intercultural dialogue:
actors, strategies, programmes
The Ministry of Culture in Spain has
promoted intercultural dialogue and the defence of diversity in many
international forums. In April 2006, the Ministry of Culture held the meeting
"Europe for intercultural dialogue", with representatives of some thirty
countries, with the aim of making intercultural dialogue a permanent process in
Europe and an element present at all levels of action of the European Union.
This meeting followed in the spirit of the Alliance of Civilisations,
announced by the General Secretary of the United Nations, on the proposal of
the President of the Spanish government. The meeting concluded with a Declaration
of the Presidency, which expressed the reference points to bear in mind in
this permanent process of intercultural dialogue, which must have the support
of civil society and a flexible focus able to respond to the needs of cities
that are becoming increasingly heterogeneous. With the aim of preparing the
"European Year of ICD 2008", in March 2007 the central government
approved the creation of a National Commission for the Promotion of
Intercultural Dialogue (R. D. 367/2007, of 16 March 2007).
At the local level, Barcelona
(Catalonia) celebrated the Universal Forum of Cultures in 2004. This
vast international event, organised jointly by Barcelona City Council, the
Autonomous government of Catalonia and the Spanish government, was structured
around three central themes approved by UNESCO: cultural diversity, sustainable
development and conditions for peace. To meet these aims, over the 141 days of
the Forum, a huge variety of events were presented to illustrate the themes of
the Forum: dialogues, exhibitions and plays, music, dance, puppets, pocket
opera, cabaret, street parades, circus and films.
In the non-profit-making private
sector, the cultural association Spanish Coalition for Cultural Diversity was
established in 2004. This association was created with the aim of
protecting and promoting the diversity of cultural expressions, encouraging
dialogue between cultures and civilisations, reinforcing international
cooperation and solidarity, and stimulating the diversity of cultural
expressions and drawing attention to their value at both national and global
level. Among its founding members, were the Spanish Society of Authors,
Composers and Publishers (SGAE), the Federation of Spanish Audiovisual
Producers' Associations (FAPAE) and the Federation of Artists in Spain (FAEE).
To attain its goals, the association carries out the following activities:
For more information, see:
Database of Good Practice on Intercultural Dialogue and our
Intercultural Dialogue section.
For more information on the
government's National Strategy for the European Year of Intercultural Dialogue
please see: http://ec.europa.eu/culture/eac/dialogue/strategies_en.html
Spain/ 4.3 Recent policy issues and
debates
4.2.4 Social cohesion and cultural
policies
In her interventions, the Minister
of Culture in Spain stresses that the aim of cultural activities, both public
and private, is to work towards social cohesion. The public projects launched
in this area are above all aimed at cultural minority groups (see chapter
4.2.1). Given their greater proximity to citizens, it is local governments
that run most of the programmes aimed at promoting the social inclusion of
immigrant groups: increasing their access to libraries, civic centres, the
organisation of festivals, cultural workshops, and so on.
In Barcelona in 2006, for example,
the process of updating the first Strategic Plan for Culture (approved in 1999)
evaluated the implementation of one of its strategic lines: making culture a
key element in social cohesion. In this evaluation, a particularly important
role is played by libraries, as they provide access to culture and can help to
break down the digital divide. Other positive aspects which should be mentioned
are the approval of the Agenda 21 for Culture, the debates of Forum 2004 and
the ongoing process of approval of a Letter of Cultural Rights and Duties.
Among the areas in which progress has been only partial, and in which further
work is required, are the role of the civic centres, the relation between
education and culture, and the role of cultural associations.
Spain/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and
debates
4.2.5 Media pluralism and content
diversity
Ever since 1977, when the Ministry
of Information and Tourism was replaced by that of Culture, the government's
responsibility for the media was separated from its responsibilities for
culture. As of 2000 (with the passage of Decree 557), the media comes
under the responsibilities of the Secretary of Telecommunications and Information
Society of the Ministry of Industry, Tourism and Trade. However, the National
Institute of Cinematography and Audiovisual Arts of the Ministry of Culture
continues to develop strategies to foster the cinema and audiovisual industries
by subsidising certain production and distribution costs, and for building and
renovating cinema theatres.
Legislation passed in 1983 allowed
the autonomous communities to set up their own publicly funded radio and
television broadcasting operations, which many of them proceeded to do, such
as:
At the same time, the second TV
channel of RTVE (Spanish Radio & Television) broadcasts some of its
programmes in the languages of the different bilingual regions. The radio and
television broadcasters owned and funded by the autonomous regions, though not
always structurally linked to the regional departments of culture and language,
are one of the pillars of cultural policy, particularly in the bilingual
regions. Therefore, media pluralism is reduced in bilingual regions, while
other ethnic groups and immigrants do not benefit from special programming.
Growing immigration has led the public media to seek new formulas through which
to make this new social reality more visible in broadcasting and to make
television available and accessible to new citizens as a means of facilitating
their integration. State-funded Catalan television was the first Spanish
broadcaster to create a Diversity Committee. Its many aims include the
multilingual subtitling of emblematic programmes, the adaptation of its
broadcasting language, coverage of the daily lives of new citizens on Catalan
channels and the broadcasting of programmes that are of particular interest to
new citizens.
Since the beginning of the 1990s,
national and regional state-funded TV broadcasting coexists alongside private
television. The current proliferation of public and private channels, at
national, regional and, more recently, local level, generates fierce
competition for available advertising revenue. The massive deficits accumulated
by government- and autonomous community-controlled broadcasting, together with
the deterioration of their cultural content, have fuelled an ongoing debate on
how publicly-owned broadcasting should be funded. Within RTVE, the radio side
of the organisation has remained on the sidelines; not dependent on advertising
revenues, the public service offered by its various channels (RNE, Radio
Exterior de España, Classical Radio and Radio 3, Radio 5 Todo notícias) is of a
good quality.
The media, owned and run by the
government, are deemed to be public services that are obliged to respect the
"political, religious, social, cultural and linguistic diversity [of
Spain]". RTVE, the main "social means of communication", aims to
be a paradigm of quality, plurality and cultural diversity. Today, 18.6% of
programmes on RTVE 1 are considered cultural, 54.3% on RTVE 2, and in the two
private TV channels, the proportions are 1.6% and 3.2% respectively.
See also chapter
5.3.8.
Spain/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and
debates
4.2.6 Culture industries: policies
and programmes
Though the concept of "culture
industries" is not defined in documents of Spain's cultural policies, the
term "cultural enterprises" does appear in the Ministry's statistics.
"Cultural enterprises" are those organisations whose main economic
activity is in the cultural arena, for example, libraries, archives, museums
and other cultural institutions, and firms involved in cinema, video, radio and
television and artistic performances. The term Cultural Enterprises is only a
statistical definition; nevertheless, it is not so different from what the
Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural
Expressions understands by "cultural industries": industries
producing and distributing cultural goods or services. These goods or services
are considered as a specific attribute, use or purpose, and embody or convey
cultural expressions, "irrespective of the commercial value they may
have".
At regional level, with the creation
in 2000 of the Catalan Institute of Creative Industries (20/2000 Act),
the concept of "culture industry" covers the cultural productions
from the audiovisual world, the press, the radio, the television, books, music,
performing arts, visual arts or multimedia, and their distribution.
The latest data published by the
Ministry of Culture, in the "Statistical Yearbook 2006", shows
that the turnover of the Spanish culture industries in 2004 was approximately
35 billion. The most important are the publishing sector (8 billion), graphic
arts and recording (8.6 billion), radio and television (6.5 billion) and the
cinema and video sectors (3.9 billion). The number of companies, whose
main economic activity was defined as cultural, reached exceed 60 000 in
2005, approximately 2% of all those recorded in the central company directory.
As regards the number of employees, 86% of cultural enterprises in 2004 had
between 0 and 9 employees, while less than 1% had more than 100.
One of the priorities of the current
government is the development of an effective policy of support for the sectors
in which culture industries are active. In the case of books, the priority is
support for publication and translation, the publication of cultural magazines,
support for activity abroad, and the dissemination of Spanish books (and
Spanish literature) in America and elsewhere. This will be achieved by a
presence at international book fairs and the production of new materials or the
development of projects to promote the products of publishing houses. The book
industry benefits from the Ministry's "cultural exception" policy,
with fixed book prices and the Reading, Books and Libraries Act,
recently passed, which foresees the creation of a Reading and Book Observatory.
A new promotion plan will soon be
introduced for the cinema and audiovisual sector and it will have a legislative
basis. Among the main measures adopted so far, are the increase in the
endowment of the Protection Fund and the creation of the reciprocal guarantee
company, which will allow firms in the sector to obtain funding. In order to
promote the presence of European films in Spanish cinemas, the government has
placed the quota system under firmer control and is providing support for
independent distributors. In addition, from July 2005, television companies (in
Spain they are television operators, and they can be public and private)
have been obliged to invest 5% of their annual income in the production of
European cinema and TV films (3% reserved for Spanish production). In the area
of creation, with special repercussions for the music sector, the Ministry has
two lines of action: the first is to update the legislation on intellectual
property, and the second is to draw society's attention to the need to respect
both cultural creators and cultural products. In the first line of action, the
"Information Society Directive" (34/2002 Act) has been
introduced and the Intellectual Property Act has been modified (23/2006
Act). In the second line, the "Anti-piracy Plan" was approved in
2005, to stop activities that infringe intellectual property rights.
There are four main challenges to
the culture industries in Spain which need to be overcome:
In recent years, there have been
many higher education programmes for professionals employed in culture
industries. Catalonia was one of the first Autonomous Communities to cater for
the sector. For some years now, the Pompeu Fabra University has offered a
Master's programme in publishing and several postgraduate diplomas in: company
management in the music industry; content management; management of cultural
institutions, companies and platforms, and publishing. It also offers a
postgraduate course in global publishing in Spanish and international
publishing. The University of Barcelona has a postgraduateprogramme in show
production and management and the Open University of Catalonia offers a
postgraduate programme in management of the culture industries.
In order to promote the territorial
reorganisation of the audiovisual sector and to build a centre of activity that
would be competitive on an international scale, the Autonomous Community of
Madrid promoted the Ciudad de la Imagen during the 1990s. In 2001, the
Catalan Government and Terrassa City Council launched a similar project, Terrassa
Audiovisual City, with the aim of converting this city into the driving
force behind the Catalan audiovisual industry and a reference point for the
industry both at home and abroad. The Catalan project is complemented by the
project Parque Barcelona Media in the city's technological district - distrito
22@ - which was set up to reinforce the productive, cultural and research
position of Barcelona and Catalonia. The Parque Barcelona Media, which
is the result of collaboration between the Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona
City Council and the business group Mediapro, is a platform of audiovisual and
communication facilities and services, in which private enterprises and the
university work together in the same location.
Spain/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and
debates
4.2.7 Employment policies for the
cultural sector
According to a recent study, culture
represents approximately 3% of the GDP. The apparently growing weight of this
"third sector" of the Spanish economy is reflected in the employment
figures: the number of jobs in the cultural field rose from 397 600 in
2000 to 514 200 in 2005, an increase of approximately 30% in absolute
terms. This increase is related to the development of cultural enterprises as
producers of value added, with the capacity to absorb new technologies and
qualified workers. In 2005, the cultural sector employed 2.7% of all workers.
The number of jobs in "cultural professions" (e.g. artists,
archivists, librarians, etc.) rose even faster, from 154 300 to
212 400, over the same period, as a result of the Ministry's policy in
these sectors. Approximately 83% of workers in culture were employees in 2005: 67%
of these had indefinite contracts and the other 33% had temporary contracts. It
is equally true, however, that cultural employment, particularly in the
entertainment field, is made up of a high proportion of unregistered workers
which exist on the fringes of the mainstream economic system. As for civil
service employment in this field, the main challenge today is to re-train local
and regional officials and bring them up to speed on current trends in cultural
policy-making.
Spain/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and
debates
4.2.8 New technologies and cultural
policies
According to recent data from the
National Statistics Institute (INE), the development of the Information Society
in Spain is accelerating, after the implementation of the Plan Avanza.
This plan, approved by the Council of Ministers in late 2005, is one of the
strategic key points of the Government's National Reforms Programme set up to
comply with the requirements of the Lisbon Strategy. The percentage of the
Spanish population who regularly access the Internet rose from 45.4% in
December 2005 to 48.6% in December 2006. The number of homes with Internet
access has also risen from 37% to 41.1% in one year, while homes with broadband
have gone up from 24.5% to 32.6% in the same period.
Nonetheless, some challenges remain
to be addressed:
Important support schemes for artists
working with new technologies are:
Spain/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and
debates
4.2.9 Heritage issues and policies
The challenges facing the current
heritage policy are basically three, namely:
Two other issues relate to the
current debate about Spain's cultural properties and how they are defined as
such. This is part of an ongoing discussion about the term cultural property
being extended to new fields such as contemporary history and industrial
properties.
After the 2004 elections, one of the
goals of the new Ministry of Culture was to improve the management of
historical heritage, and to allow its integration in the knowledge society. The
application of digital technologies and, above all, the availability of
cultural heritage works to the general public via the Internet were, according
to the Minister, the most democratic and economical way to disseminate culture.
The Ministry is currently compiling a large database with images of museum
collections, which will be generally available and which will be incorporated
in the State Museum Digital Network. During 2007, the Spanish Ministry of
Culture has worked to develop the Portal of Spanish Archives, a web-based
database for the diffusion of national historical documentary heritage, and the
Virtual Library of Bibliographical Heritage, which will be completed by the end
of the year and will allow users to consult a wide range of online documents
that form part of Spain's bibliographical heritage.
For more information, see
European Heritage Network: Country profile Spain
Spain/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and
debates
4.2.10 Gender equality and cultural
policies
The issue of gender equality is
clearly a major challenge for Spanish society which has been recently tackled
in the 3/2007 Act. It establishes special recommendations for cultural
policy making in recognising the duty of the authorities to implement the right
of equal treatment and opportunities for women and men in all aspects related
to the creation and artistic and intellectual production and their
dissemination. The Act also provides for the implementation of active policies,
translated into economic incentives, and the promotion of balanced
participation of men and women in artistic and cultural public offering. In
2007 the Ministry of Culture has created the Portal Women in Culture,
which contains resources related to activities, publications, grants, awards,
scholarships, etc. leaded by women (see also http://en.www.mcu.es/MC/Mujeres/index.html).
There are, however, many women
working in the field of culture. To take libraries as an example, most
librarians are women. Also, those responsible for cultural activities at
different levels of the administration are mostly women. This is a longstanding
trend resulting from the strong female presence in arts education and in
specific training in cultural administration.
Gender barriers to cultural
participation do not appear to be a problem.
Spain/ 4. Current issues in cultural
policy development and debate
4.3 Other relevant issues and
debates
Information is currently not
available.
Spain/ 5.1 General legislation
5.1.1 Constitution
The 1978 Constitution, which
restored parliamentary democracy in Spain, gave considerable prominence to
cultural affairs. As can be seen in other Constitutions of its generation
(those of Greece, Portugal, Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador), the
"constitutional culture" of the Magna Carta of 1978 is the result of
a process lasting throughout the twentieth century in which cultural concerns
gained wider and wider acceptance as matters susceptible to constitutional
regulation. An obvious precedent was the constitution introduced by the Second
Republic (1931-1939), the first Spanish constitution to include culture as one
of the realms of government intervention and, as such, as a legitimate field in
which to establish public and citizen rights.
Culture appears in the 1978
Constitution as one of the main spheres of government action. The importance
attached to culture is made clear in the way various tasks are entrusted to the
constituted authorities in guaranteeing cultural processes, i.e., the creation,
transmission and protection of culture. The Constitution states that culture is
a right of all citizens and is to form part of the presiding principles of social
and economic policy. The Constitution entrusts the public authorities with
specific tasks in the field of culture.Access to culture is one of the prime
mandates of the Constitution (see Articles 9 and 44). Another
important mandate is linked to the protection of the historic, cultural and
artistic heritage (Article 46).
Linguistic and cultural plurality is
expressly protected by the Constitution, both in the preamble and in its
articles (Article 3.2). It is equally guaranteed in the charters of
the autonomous regions.
Spain/ 5.1 General legislation
5.1.2 Division of jurisdiction
The 1978 Constitution adopted a
decentralised model of national administration which is neither regional nor
federal but a mixture of the two. It outlines the "State of the Autonomies",
and established seventeen autonomous communities (plus two cities having
autonomous status, Ceuta and Melilla) as intermediate territorial political
entities on which the Constitution confers ample power of self government.
Culture is depicted as a major
defining element having a quasi structural importance in the territorial
division of the state. The autonomous communities are defined as adjacent
provinces sharing "common historic, cultural and economic
characteristics" (Article 143). According to this definition,
culture makes up the nucleus of the powers of the autonomous governments: the
state "shall consider the promotion of culture a duty and an essential
function and shall facilitate cultural communication between the Autonomous
Communities, in collaboration with them" (Article 149.2).
Local authorities are regarded as territorial entities governed by the
principle of common goals (Article 137); their interests, too, are
deemed to have a "cultural" dimension.
The allocation of roles and responsibilities
for culture among the different territorial public authorities is based on a
single principle, in the sense that it contains rules differing from those
applied in other constitutional areas. The main difference resides in that the
fulfilment of obligations can be made on a concurrent, parallel or, as it has
also been called, "twinned" basis. Instead of the incluius unius,
exclusius alterius principle that normally governs the allocation of
administrative responsibilities, in this case, the fact that one authority is
given a job by no means prevents another authority, at a different level, from
taking upon itself precisely the same task. The Constitutional Court made this
abundantly clear in a ruling (STC 49) in 1984:"...any consideration of
culture leads us to the conclusion that it falls within the competence of both
central and regional governments and possibly at other levels; wherever a
community exists, it has a culture over which representative public authorities
may exercise their authority beyond purely technical administrative matters to
enter the realm of what may broadly be described as fostering culture".
This so-called
"concurrent" principle, as far as fostering culture is concerned, in
no way impedes the existence of demarcation lines with respect to specific
cultural institutions. The Constitution defines which areas are the exclusive
terrain of the central government (Article 149.1): the defence of
Spanish cultural, artistic and architectural property against export or wanton
removal; state-owned museums, archives and libraries, whether or not their
administration is delegated to the autonomous communities; legislation on
intellectual property and copyright; the principles to be applied by the press,
radio and television and, in general, all means of communication owned by
public authorities not resulting from initiatives taken by the regional
communities in the exercise of their powers. Article 148
establishes which cultural responsibilities the regions may assume:
handicrafts, museums, libraries, archives, conservatories for music of special
interest to the region and architectural property, also of special interest to
the community.
See also chapter
2.2.
Spain/ 5.1 General legislation
5.1.3 Allocation of public funds
There is no legislation for the
allocation of public funds for culture. This is a matter decided by the
Ministry of Culture.
The Royal Decree 1601/2004 establishes
that the State Secretariat of the Ministry of Culture is responsible for
producing and processing the annual draft report of the departmental budget,
coordinating the preparation of the budgets of public institutions and their
consolidation with those of the department, analysing and processing
modifications, and monitoring the budget. Act 6/1997 lays down that the
General Administration of the state, and therefore the Ministry
of Culture, is responsible for the effective allocation and use of public
resources, and for the control of management and the results.
Spain/ 5.1 General legislation
5.1.4 Social security frameworks
Initially artists and creative
workers were classified under a special category for the purposes of social
security (2133/1975 Decree). Ten years later, by virtue of Decree
26/1985, they obtained the same rights and obligations as all other
workers. Performing artists and bullfighters were then grouped together under a
special heading within the general social security system. Another Decree
(2621/1986) made specific provisions for income averaging in view of the
considerable monthly fluctuations in artists' income as well as a provision
regarding the possibility of early retirement for performing artists in an
effort to compensate them when they reached an age when they could no longer
perform.
Authors, on the other hand, are
considered self-employed workers. Again, efforts were made to establish a fair
level of disability insurance and a retirement plan considering the
fluctuations in their annual income. Chapter
5.3.9 provides information on the various ways of providing tax relief for
authors.
For more information, see our Status
of Artists section.
Spain/ 5.1 General legislation
5.1.5 Tax laws
There are tax exemptions available
for institutions from the "third sector", i.e., foundations,
associations considered to be of public interest, international development and
aid agencies, and non-profit making bodies falling within the terms of 49/2002
Act, entitled the Act on Tax Exemptions for Non-profit making
Organisations and on Sponsorship. This piece of legislation establishes
detailed exemptions on national and local taxes including rates, local duties
levied on businesses, and the municipal tax charged on capital gains from the
sale of urban property (This paragraph refers to NGOs). Individuals and
companies can also claim an income tax exemption on the amount of money donated
to certain organisations such as those mentioned above (this paragraph refers
to individuals and companies which invest and donate to NGOs). Regional
cultural institutions, public universities and university colleges, the
Cervantes Institute, the Ramon Llull Institute and other bodies set up to
promote regional languages have similar tax breaks and can benefit from
donations.
The amount of VAT charged on certain
cultural goods and services is lower than the standard rate (37/1992 Value
Added Tax Act). Even though they are supposed to be harmonised with EU
regulations concerning VAT, goods such as books, newspapers and magazines pay a
"super-reduced" VAT rate of 4%, while art objects, antiques and
collectors' items traded among EU countries pay the "reduced" levy of
7%, as do tickets to the theatre, cinema, circus, museums, zoos and sports
events. Services produced by actors and performing artists also pay the
"reduced" levy of 7%, whereas services produced by writers, composers
or visual artists, related to authors rights, are exempt from VAT. Other
cultural goods and services, such as CDs or DVDs, pay standard VAT at 16%.
In addition, artists benefit from a
tax exemption on important literary or scientific prizes (Article 7.1
of the 40/1998 Income Taxes Act and Article 10 of the
Decree 214/1999 approving the Income Tax Regulations).
Spain/ 5.1 General legislation
5.1.6 Labour laws
Spanish law has no general labour
law covering artists or cultural workers. There are, however, a number of
regulations affecting artists as producers of culture. They include, for
example, labour regulations covering people working in public entertainment.
The current Workers Charter passed in 1980 contains special provisions
for performing artists, expanded upon in greater detail in a Decree of 1985
(1435/1985 Royal Decree). This decree establishes a non-exhaustive
regulation of the content of labour relations, considering only those aspects
that can be treated in the same way in all artistic sectors and leaving the
development of the rights and obligations to collective negotiation between the
parties to this special relation. At the state level, there are also collective
agreements referring to actors and film producers (since 1990), graphic arts
and publishing-houses (since 1997), film distributors (since 1997), and
audiovisual production. At the level of the Autonomous Communities, collective
agreements have been signed in Catalonia, Madrid, Galicia, the Balearics, La
Rioja and Navarre.
For more information, see our Status
of Artists section.
Spain/ 5.1 General legislation
5.1.7 Copyright provisions
Rules governing intellectual
property in Spain were based for many years on the 1879 Act, and the
jurisprudence it generated over the following 100 years. In 1987, it was
superseded by a new 22/1987 Act, designed to bring copyright legislation
up to date, improve the rights it covers and close the loop-holes left open by
the nineteenth-century legislation, particularly the difficulties arising from
the lack of reference to an author's ongoing property rights over an original
work (droit de suite). Ten years later, the 1/1996 Legislative Decree
had to undergo numerous amendments to bring it into line with EU
legislation. This 1996 decree assembled all current rules on intellectual
property, pertaining to both artistic and scientific works, and included
authors' economic rights, moral rights and droit de suite. The new social and
economic situation and especially the challenge of providing more effective
protection to creators, permitting the peaceful dissemination of their
creations by culture industries, and guaranteeing the whole of society's access
to a plural cultural offer, led to the new Law on Intellectual Property
approved in July 2006.
Among the objectives of the new Intellectual
Property Act (23/2006 Act) are the simplification and clarification
of the obligations of the debtors for the use of the creations; the increase of
transparency in the management of these rights; the introduction of flexible
mechanisms for solving conflicts, and the redefinition of the role of the
various levels of government with competence in the field. The objectives of
the new Minister of Culture (July 2007) include the establishment of a fair and
balanced compensation for limited private copying and the creation of an
Intellectual Property Commission aimed at reducing the high degree of
litigation involved in the management of authors' rights.
The Intellectual Property Act
(23/2006 Act) obliges copyright societies to set up welfare and support
services for "authors, performing artists or cultural workers",
either themselves or through third parties. Societies are to spend 20% of their
copyright fees on such services. Some companies, such as the SGAE, the VEGAP
and AISGE have set up special foundations to fulfil these obligations. These
are the Author Foundation, the Foundation Art and Law and the AISGE Foundation.
There are currently eight collecting
societies in Spain which are authorised by the Ministry of Culture: SGAE, the
Spanish Society of Authors Composers and Publishers; CEDRO, the Spanish
Reproduction Rights Centre; AGEDI, the Association for the Management of
Intellectual Rights; AIE, the Artists and Performers Society of Spain; VEGAP,
Visual Management Entity of Plastic Artists; EGEDA, Audio-visual Producers'
Rights Management Association; AISGE, Artists, Interprets, Management Society;
and DAMA, Audiovisual media Author's Rights.
Although copyright legislation is
the exclusive domain of the central government, the autonomous communities of
Andalusia, Aragon, Asturias, Catalonia, Extremadura, Galicia, La Rioja, Madrid,
Murcia and Valencia have some local administrative powers to run their own
registries under the aegis of the state-run coordinating committee of the
central copyright register (Registry of Intellectual Property).
See also chapter
8.1.1.
Spain/ 5.1 General legislation
5.1.8 Data protection laws
Personal data protection is
currently regulated by the Data Protection Act 15/1999. The Spanish Data
Protection Agency was created in 1993 to guarantee citizens the right to know
who may have access to their personal data and for what purpose and to provide
a platform for exercising the rights of access, alteration, cancellation and
opposition. The regional data protection agencies for Madrid, Catalonia and the
Basque Country were created in 1997, 2002 and 2003 respectively, and
institutional collaboration now takes place between the General Data Protection
Register and the regional file registers. Regulations concerning data
protection have a clear impact on the way cultural services (libraries,
museums, theatres, etc.) market themselves to potential users/audiences through
the type of data requested for membership or information about activities, etc.
Spain/ 5.1 General legislation
5.1.9 Language laws
Attempts to regulate multilingualism
in Spain have generated many rules and regulations in the regional government
level and on occasion in central government. The cornerstone of the entire
structure rests on the 1978 Constitutional dictum (Article 3.1)
that Castilian is the official language of the state but that the "other
Spanish languages" share the same official status in their respective
communities, as stated in their Charters (Article 3.2). This legal
construct was designed based on the idea that Spain's linguistic diversity is a
manifestation of "wealth" and an item of "cultural
heritage" as a value in its entirety. This means that the 1978
Constitution was designed to respect and protect the diversity of the system as
a whole, not merely its constituent parts.
The language of the 1978
Constitution and the various regional charters has opened the door to a flood
of regional legislation on language, including that of the Basque Country
(10/1982 Act), Galicia (3/1983 Act), Valencia (1/1983 Act), Catalonia (1/1998
Act) and Navarre (18/1998 Act). However, this has not prevented the
central government, in the exercise of its powers, from regulating how the
co-official status of regional languages works in such practical spheres as
education and schools, access to public services, local administration, the
courts, the health authorities and road signs.
These legal provisions and their
implementation have generated numerous disputes taken first to the ordinary
courts and then to the Constitutional Court which, by its jurisprudence, has
slowly established a framework for how two languages co-exist as official. The
relevant Constitutional jurisprudence (more than 25 sentences) are the
Sentences 82, 83 and 84 of 26 June 1986, passed in response to Bills
submitted to the central government on the normalisation of the Basque, Catalan
and Galician languages. According to these Sentences, Castilian, as the
official language of the country as a whole, cannot be cast as a rival to the
regional languages given that both the regional and central governments are
equally obliged to respect and protect the multiple languages of Spain.
In the specific case of the cultural
sector, Catalan legislation (Act 1/1998 on Linguistic Policy)
establishes language quotas for licensed radio and television broadcasting. In
order to promote the composition, performance and production of Catalan music,
radio and television broadcasting companies also have to guarantee that music
programmes will provide adequate exposure to songs performed by Catalan
artists, which must account for at least 25% of the material broadcast.
Spain/ 5.2 Legislation on culture
There is no overall legislation for
culture in Spain. The only Act establishing the scope, operation and governing
structure is the Royal Decree 1601/2004 on the Structure of the Ministry
of Culture (see chapter
1).
Spain/ 5.3 Sector specific
legislation
5.3.1 Visual and applied arts
The Historical Heritage Act of
1985 introduced two significant means of supporting the visual arts. One
was handing over artworks to the Treasury in lieu of taxes, a form of taxpaying
which has since gained some popularity: it is estimated to have increased funding
for national heritage by euro 93.7 million since 2002. Although regional
cultural institutions did not initially benefit from this measure, the same
system of tax collection is being slowly introduced at the regional and
municipal levels.
The second measure is the so-called
"cultural one per cent", a reference to the one per cent of all
public works budgets to be paid to the state to finance the conservation and
enhancement of the country's heritage or to "foster artistic creativity".
Between 1986 and 2006, the Ministry of Development earmarked euro 400 million
for the "cultural one per cent". So far, however, the bulk of this
money has been spent on the heritage and very little on artistic creation.
Spain/ 5.3 Sector specific
legislation
5.3.2 Performing arts and music
Music and the performing arts
comprise a cultural sector that has long been the subject of official
sponsorship (funding and intervention) of one sort or another. Responsibility
for this support is now held by a self-governing public body set up in 1984 on
an arm's-length basis, the National Institute of Music and Performing Arts
(INAEM), whose director is appointed by the Minister and whose activities are
governed by a decree issued in 1996. It is responsible for fostering the
performing arts and the activities of the following institutions: the Zarzuela
Theatre, the National Ballet, the National Company of Dance, the Centre for the
Diffusion of Contemporary Music, the Concert Hall of Madrid, the Spanish
National Orchestra and Choir, the Spanish National Youth Orchestra, the
Documentation Centre of Music and Dance, the National Classical Theatre
Company, the Centre of Theatre Documentation, the National Drama Centre and the
Technological Centre of Performing Arts. At present, the new Minister,
nominated in July 2007, is working on the conversion of the INAEM into the
National Agency of Music and Performing Arts. This change will mean higher
level of autonomy and flexibility in management, which will allow a specific
regime of human and economic resources, as well as greater flexibility in
selecting personnel. Within these legislative and regulatory measures in
performing arts and music, the Ministry of Culture also promotes the creation
of the State Council of the Performing Arts and Music, as a ministerial adviser
body, which will seek to channel the participation of music, dance, theatre and
circus sectors, and their coordination with the Central Administration of the
State. This will seek to create a space for reflection and exchange of views
able to collect the aspirations and proposals of the principal actors and
recipients of cultural policies.
The autonomous regions also pursue
policies designed to foster music and theatre. They include the Galician
Institute of Music and Performing Arts (1989) and the Valencian Institute of
Performing Arts, Cinematography and Music.
There is no relevant legislation for
the performing arts and music in Spain.
Spain/ 5.3 Sector specific
legislation
5.3.3 Cultural heritage
Article 46 of the 1978 Constitution directs the authorities to
"guarantee the preservation and to promote the enrichment of the historic,
cultural and artistic heritage of the peoples of Spain and of the property of
which that heritage consists". The text goes beyond "conservation"
to include the "enrichment" of cultural property. Acting upon this
principle, the Parliament approved the Historical Heritage Act of 1985,
a piece of legislation that broke new ground in heritage protection policy.
The dual purpose of the 1985
Historical Heritage Act was to ensure compliance with the 1978
Constitutional mandate that enables the autonomous communities to pass their
own regional laws on the same subject, as mandated by their own Charters.
However, the 1985 Historical Heritage Act was challenged by various
regions on the grounds that the central government also had responsibilities in
this field. The Constitutional Court, while dismissing the anti-constitutional
claim, admitted that cultural properties were surely part of the national
heritage of the whole country and therefore the two levels of government should
work together. In practice, this meant that most communities introduced their
own legislation anyway: Basque Country (7/1990 Act); Castile-La Mancha
(4/1990 Act); Andalusia (1/1991 Act); Catalonia (9/1993 Act); Galicia (8/1995
Act); Valencian Community (4/1998 Act); Madrid (10/1998 Act); Balearic Islands
(Act 12/1998); Canary Islands (4/1999 Act); Extremadura (2/1999 Act); Aragon
(3/1999 Act); Asturias (1/2001 Act); and Castile-Leon (12/2002 Act).
These laws follow a more
"anthropological" interpretation of cultural heritage, leaving the
traditional architectural canons employed in the nineteenth and part of the
twentieth centuries behind. The protective system employed by these laws is implemented
via a series of administrative measures (prohibitions, fines, conservation
orders, bans on sale or export, etc.), combined with incentives, such as the
so-called "cultural one per cent", a levy on the cost of all public
works which is used to help defray the cost of conservation. Legislation of
both the central government and the regional authorities establishes various
ways of defining heritage property, usually based on two categories. On the one
hand, this includes the assets of cultural interest, and on the other hand,
those properties included on a general inventory list of national interest. An
important element of both the national and regional laws is the link made
between cultural property laws and legislation for urban development.
Cultural institutions such as
museums and archives are regulated by the Historical Heritage Act of 1985,
which gives a brief definition of such bodies and the terms under which they
are set up, administered and coordinated, together with how people can use
their services. The 1985 Historical Heritage Act is complemented by a
series of nationwide enabling regulations governing such matters as specialist
arms length institutions. It also includes a series of rules, applying to
specific institutions such as the Prado Museum, the Archaeological National
Museum, the Museum of America, the Museum of the Alhambra, the Reina Sofia
Museum and Art Centre, the National Museum of Anthropology, the Museum of Roman
Art, the National Museum of Decorative Arts , the National Museum of Ceramics
and Sumptuary Arts , the National Sculpture Museum, the National Museum of
Science and Technology, as well as the state-run archives (National Historical
Archive, the General Archive of Simancas, the Archive of the Indies, the
Archive of the Kingdom of Aragon).
As far as regional legislation is
concerned, the dominant trend is to approve individual laws for museums and
archives independently of national heritage legislation. Regions which have
their own museum legislation include: Andalusia (2/1984 Act), Aragon (7/1986
Act), Catalonia (17/1990 Act), Castile-Leon (10/1994 Act), Murcia (5/1996 Act),
Madrid (9/1999 Act) and Cantabria (5/2001 Act). Regions with their
own laws for public archives are: Andalusia (3/1984 Act), Aragon (6/1986
Act), the Canary Islands (3/1990 Act), Murcia (6/1990 Act), Castile-Leon
(6/1991 Act), Madrid (Act 4/1993 Act), La Rioja (4/1994 Act), Catalonia
(13/2001 Act) and Cantabria (3/2002 Act).
Spain/ 5.3 Sector specific
legislation
5.3.4 Literature and libraries
Libraries are regulated by the Historical
Heritage Act of 1985, which gives a brief definition of these bodies and
the terms under which they are set up, administered and coordinated, together
with indications on how people can use their services. The 1985 Historical
Heritage Act is complemented by a series of nationwide regulations
governing such matters as specialist arms length institutions, with specific
details on, for example, state-owned libraries and how books are to be loaned.
As far as regional legislation is
concerned, the dominant trend is to approve individual laws for libraries
independently of national heritage legislation. The Communities with their own
library laws are: Andalusia (8/1983 Act), the Valencian Community
(10/1986 Act), Aragon (8/1986 Act), Castile-Leon (9/1989 Act), Castile-La
Mancha (1/1989 Act), Galicia (14/1989 Act), Madrid (10/1989 Act) La Rioja (Act
4/1990 Act), Murcia (7/1990 Act), Catalonia (4/1993 Act), Extremadura (6/1997
Act) and Cantabria (3/2001 Act).
In June 2007, a new Act for
Reading, Books and Libraries was approved, which establishes a new legal
framework for the area in concordance with the regulations on taxation and
intellectual property. The aims of the new Act are threefold: to promote
reading, to defend cultural diversity in order to provide mechanisms which
guarantee a plural supply of publishing companies and bookshops, and to adapt
the book concept to changes facilitated by new technological changes(see also chapter
4.2.6 and chapter
5.3.7).
Spain/ 5.3 Sector specific
legislation
5.3.5 Architecture and environment
Information is currently not
available.
Spain/ 5.3 Sector specific
legislation
5.3.6 Film, video and photography
There is ample legislation on film
and the audiovisual arts, two sectors that successive governments have tried
hard to encourage, both from the production and consumption sides. The regulations,
amended at regular intervals over the years, reveal two basic trends: a growing
appreciation that films can be of genuine cultural value and a realisation that
there is little separating film and the audiovisual arts, traditionally
categorised as different art forms. The latest amendment to the Promotion of
Cinematography and Audiovisual Sector Act in 2001, includes three
objectives in the opening articles, namely: the promotion and encouragement of
the production of works of cinematography and visual arts by Spanish producers
or by those of the member states of the European Union and the Common European
Economic Space; the creation of favourable conditions for their production and
distribution; and the conservation of cinematographic and audiovisual property.
It was originally intended that the
new Cinema Bill would appeal the so-called "screen quota"
obliging a certain percentage of European films to be shown in cinemas
regardless of demand. Following opposition from the film industry, the law was
enacted, leaving the quota in the document, however, adding that if, within
five years of its introduction, the government should so wish, it is fully
entitled to modify or even eliminate the quota (which it has not done).
Currently, a new Bill is been discussed in the House of Commons, which is
planned to be approved before the end of the legislature. The Bill introduces
tax incentives to the production and states that the "screen quota"
will be accounted for showings, and not for days. It also establishes the
creation of a fund to assist cinematography in regional governments with its
own languages. This will be funded between the regional governments and the
central administration, and its management will depend on the respective
autonomous executives. In any case, there is a strong opposition with the new
bill and surely there will be changes in the Congress.
Central government cultural policy
on film is the responsibility of the National Institute of Cinematography and
Audiovisual Arts (INCAA), a body set up in 1984 and governed by a decree passed
in 1997. Some of the regions have adopted legislation of their own designed to
encourage the film industry. The Catalan Linguistic Policy Act of 1998,
for example, sets out measures designed to promote Catalan-language films, and
provides the possibility for the regional government to introduce screen and
distribution quotas to ensure such films are exhibited to the public. Another
piece of regional legislation established the Catalan Institute of Creative
Industries, a body designed to develop and monitor compliance with
initiatives introduced to foster the Catalan language and culture (Article 3.j).
To the same end, the Galician Audiovisual Act was passed in 1999. In
Andalusia, a series of measures were also introduced and designed to encourage
and protect the audiovisual arts.
These initiatives, by either central
or regional governments, met with strong opposition initially, but were
resolved in the Constitutional Court, which established the concurrent character
of cultural responsibilities. The following rulings are relevant: STC 49/1984,
on regulations concerning special venues for screening films; STC 143/1985 on
cinema inspections; STC 153/1985 on regulations governing the issue of cinema
tickets; STC 157/1985 on a register of film companies; STC 87/1987, on
classification of films and audiovisual materials; STC 106/1987, on the
protection of the Spanish film industry; and STC 153/1989 on film
co-productions.
Spain/ 5.3 Sector specific
legislation
5.3.7 Culture industries
The administrative framework that
covers the culture industries is slowly but steadily moving towards
deregulation, together with a specific move to bring the cinematographic and
audiovisual sectors under the same administrative umbrella (see also chapter
5.3.6).
Book publishing had been the subject
of a specific piece of legislation in 1975, the so-called Book Act.
Among other things it introduced the fixed book price. This was partly relaxed
in 1998, when booksellers were entitled to offer a discount of as much as 12%
on the official retail price of primary and secondary schoolbooks and related
teaching aids. In 2000, all price controls on schoolbooks were lifted. This
double system of fixing book prices and making schoolbooks free of charge has
been included in the new Act for Reading, Books and Libraries passed in June
2007. Besides the establishment of this double system of prices, the new
Act, which replaces all previous regulations, envisages the creation of an
Observatory of reading and books, the inclusion of royalties for loan
librarian, following the rules of the European Union, the promotion of creators
and the support for the publishing industry. Various schemes for encouraging
book reading have been explored at both central and regional government levels,
such as the campaign to encourage reading carried out by Madrid's regional
government in 1999, the Andalusian agreement on the promotion of books in 2001,
and the law on books approved by the Valencia Autonomous Community in 2002.
Copies of all new publications have to be placed in an official deposit, for
purposes of conservation, in accordance with legislation dating back to 1972.
The sound recording sector received
government support through the Anti-piracy Plan in 2005 and the new Intellectual
Property Act in 2006.
Chapter
5.1.5 provides information on tax rates for cultural goods and services.
Spain/ 5.3 Sector specific
legislation
5.3.8 Mass media
In 1980, the Radio and Television
Statute (4/1980 Act) was passed, which defined the fundamental role of the
State Radio and Television networks and the presence of Spanish Television with
its two channels. Legislation passed (46/1983 Third Channel Act)
in 1983 allowed the Autonomous Communities to set up their own publicly funded
radio and television broadcasting operations (see also chapter
4.2.5). Later on, in 1988, through the 10/1988 Private Television Act,
the audiovisual spectrum was opened up to private initiative with a basically
commercial aim.
Since the beginning of the 1990s,
national and regional state-funded TV broadcasting has coexisted alongside
private television. Today's proliferation of public and private channels, at
national, regional and, more recently, local level, generates fierce
competition for available advertising revenue. The massive deficits run up by
government- and community-controlled broadcasting, together with the
deterioration of their cultural content, have fuelled an ongoing debate on how
publicly owned broadcasting should be funded. Within RTVE (Spanish Radio &
Television), the radio side of the organisation has remained on the sidelines;
not dependent on advertising revenues, the public service offered by its
various channels (RNE, Radio Exterior de España, Classical Radio and Radio 3,
Radio 5 Todo notícias) is of a high quality.
The media, which are owned and run
by the government, are deemed public services obliged to respect the
"political, religious, social, cultural and linguistic diversity [of
Spain]". RTVE, the main "social means of communication", aspires
to be a paradigm of quality, plurality and cultural diversity. Today 18.6% of
programmes on RTVE 1 are considered cultural, 54.3% on RTVE 2, and, in the two
private TV channels, the proportions are 1.6% and 3.2% respectively.
Recently, under the State Radio
and Television Act (17/2006 Act), the RTVE public institution was
replaced by the RTVE Corporation, a state corporation with special autonomy.
The new law aims, on the one hand, to provide a legal framework for public
radio and television that guarantees their independence, neutrality and
objectivity, and establishes organisational structures and a model of funding
that enables them to carry out their mission as a public service. On the other,
it aims to reinforce the role of Parliament and foresees the supervision of the
Corporation's activity by an independent audiovisual authority. The Corporation
must promote territorial cohesion and Spain's linguistic and cultural
diversity; broadcast international radio and TV channels that disseminate the
languages and cultures of Spain in other countries; support the social
integration of minorities and cater for social groups with specific needs;
promote knowledge of the arts, science, history and culture; and produce
audiovisual digital and multimedia material in the languages of Spain, as a
contribution to the development of Spanish and European culture industries.
Spain/ 5.3 Sector specific
legislation
5.3.9 Legislation for self-employed
artists
There is no specific legislation for
self-employed artists in Spain. There are, however, a few tax provisions
available for self-employed artists related to income tax deductions, income
averaging, company tax benefits and reduced levels of value-added tax (see chapter
5.1.5 and chapter
5.1.7).
For more information, see our Status
of Artists section.
Spain/ 5.3 Sector specific
legislation
5.3.10 Other areas of relevant
legislation
Associations and foundations have
long been involved in cultural activities.
Associations
Article 22 of the Constitution upholds the right to associate as a
fundamental right. A recent Act (1/2002) amended the former Association
Act of 1964. The approach of the new legislation is to cover both the right
to associate and the outcome of such association, i.e., the resulting
organisation. The aim was to create a new "umbrella law" covering all
those organisations lacking specific regulation. Therefore bodies such as
political parties, trade unions, management associations, religious bodies,
sports federations and consumers' organisations were excluded.
Almost all associations have
cultural aims of one description or another, occasionally of a private nature,
but mostly public. In fact, the law makes a commitment to culture one of the
main requirements for an association to be allowed to call itself
"publicly useful", an essential requisite for several advantages,
notably tax breaks. The regions are allowed to give this status to associations
operating mainly within their boundaries, provided they are registered in a
database which is co-ordinated by the national register of associations. Some
regions have approved their own laws of association: the Basque Country (12/1988
Act), Catalonia (7/1997 Act); and the Canary Islands (4/2003 Act).
Foundations
Following the restoration of
democracy, foundations were initially regulated by Act 30/1994 on the
Foundations and Fiscal Incentives for private participation in activities of
general interest, a law that finally abolished the limitations on such
bodies. It was superseded by the Foundations Act (50/2002), which
simplified the procedures and removed the controls imposed by the state on
foundations via the "protectorates".
The new Act 50/2002 lists the
kind of cultural objectives required by a foundation seeking to acquire a
general interest status. This represents a significant departure from the
traditional ban in Spain on personal or family trusts, i.e., settlements
designed to benefit individuals or their descendants. This legal prohibition is
waived when parties to the foundation undertake to conserve cultural property
and, in particular, open it to the public under the terms of the Historical
Heritage Act of 1985. Again, the powers to approve the status of such
foundations are also given to the regions, resulting in the creation of both a
central foundation register and regional foundation registers. Various regions
have introduced their own legislation: Galicia (7/1983 Act), Basque Country
(12/1994 Act), Navarre (10/1996 Act), the Canary Islands (2/1998 Act), Madrid
(1/1998 Act), Valencian Community (8/1998 Act), Catalonia (5/2001 Act) and
Castile-Leon (12/2003 Act).
Aside from the third sector, one of
the latest trends in cultural legislation relates to the growing attention
being placed on the "protection of culture from criminals". This
derives from the Constitution of 1978, which states (Article 46)
that, "Offences committed against this [historic, cultural and artistic]
heritage shall be punished under criminal law". Spain's Criminal Code,
approved in 1995, regulates against crimes committed to the nation's cultural
heritage (Articles 321 to 324) as well as violations to the Copyright
Law (Articles 270 to 272). It also stipulates that any wanton
destruction or cause of destruction of property of social or cultural value to
the community is considered a crime (Article 289).
Spain/ 6. Financing of culture
6.1 Short overview
The 1978 Constitution established a
decentralised administrative structure on three levels, central government,
regional government (with 17 regions and two autonomous cities), and local
administration (8 108 municipalities, plus provincial municipal councils
and other local bodies).
In 2004, the total public
expenditure on culture at all three levels was euro 4 753 million,
approximately 0.57% of the Spanish GDP.
The majority of public cultural
expenditure comes from the local authorities, 56.2%. Then the regions 27.9%
and, lastly the central government with 15.7% (see also chapter
6.3). This shows the decentralised nature of the Spanish model, in which
territorial authorities assume most of the responsibility for culture.
By level of government, in 2004
central government spent on culture euro 749.9 million. In terms of allocation,
heritage conservation took the largest share, nearly 50%, followed by
performing arts and music with 15.3%. Cultural relations abroad and diffusion
took a share of 16.2% of the central government funding, and film and
audiovisual 5.8%.
In 2004, regional and municipal
authorities combined spent a total of euro 4 003.4 million, of which more
than two thirds was spent by the municipal authorities (66.7%) and one third by
the regional powers (33.2%). The regions spending the highest amounts of these
combined figures were Catalonia (16.7%), Andalusia (13.8%), Madrid (11.4%) and
Galicia (10%). By sector, the regional authorities concentrated most of their
resources on cultural heritage (27.6%), followed by performing arts and music
(19.9%). Of the remaining 53%, a significant share (32.12%) was allocated to
interdisciplinary expenses (for cultural promotion, diffusion and cooperation,
or linguistic policy).
Over the four-year period 2000-2004,
the total public expenditure on culture at all three levels increased, in real
terms, by 32%.
We should also mention the tax
breaks awarded to individuals and corporations. In 2003, tax relief amounted to
euro 704 million, mostly in the form of exemptions and rebates on Value-Added
Tax (see chapter
5.1.5). In contrast, company tax and income tax relief accounted for less
than 25% of taxable profits. This situation is due to the lack of a tradition
of sponsorship in Spain and to the presence of regulations that do not
encourage these practices.
Finally, the Household Budget
Continuous Survey of 2004 provides figures on private spending for culture.
In 2004, Spanish households spent an average of euro 652.7 per year on cultural
goods and services, 3.63% of their total expenditure. By categories, most of
the cultural spending was on newspapers and magazines (20.9%), followed by
books (11.8%) and services (cinema, theatre, concerts) at 11.5%.
Spain/ 6. Financing of culture
6.2 Public cultural expenditure per
capita
Total public culture expenditure per
capita in 2004 was euro 110. Public expenditure on culture accounted for
approximately 0.57% of the Spanish GDP in the same year.
The per capita expenditure of the
central government (in 2004) amounted to 17.4 euros, and that of the autonomous
and local governments was 30.8 and 61.9 euros respectively.
The per capita figure varies widely
from region to region. Using the consolidated regional and municipal totals for
2004, the autonomous community spending the highest amount per capita was
Navarre (euro 73.7), followed by Castile-Leon (euro 48.8) and Galicia
(euro 48.8). At the lower extreme, were the Canary Islands (euro 17.2) and
Balearic Islands (euro 11.9).
Over the last five years for which
data is available (the 2000-2004 period), the evolution of per capita public
expenditure on culture was very positive. Overall, the expenditure grew in real
terms by 23.9%. By levels of government, local government had the highest growth
(32.9%), followed by autonomous governments (15.6%) and finally by central
government, which recorded a more moderate growth (11.2%). As for the absolute
values mentioned above (see chapter
6.1), the increase in per capita expenditure is lower due to the marked
growth in the population. Finally, the greater proximity of citizens to local
governments leads the latter to invest more resources in this sector.
Spain/ 6. Financing of culture
6.3 Public cultural expenditure
broken down by level of government
Table
1: Public cultural
expenditure: by level of government, in thousand euro, 2000-2004
Level of government |
2000 |
2004 |
||||
Total |
% |
Per
capita |
Total |
% |
Per
capita |
|
Central government |
560 712 |
17.65 |
13.8 |
749 900 |
15.77 |
17.4 |
Autonomous regions |
951 693 |
29.96 |
23.5 |
1 329 338 |
27.96 |
30.8 |
Local government |
1 663 787 |
52.38 |
41.1 |
2 674 148 |
56.25 |
61.9 |
TOTAL |
3 176 192 |
100.00 |
78.4 |
4 753 386 |
100.00 |
110.1 |
Source:
Ministry of Culture, 2007.
The data in table 1 shows a high
level of decentralisation in public spending on culture. As we saw in chapter
6.1, the territorial governments (autonomous and local) account for more
than 80% of government spending in the sector.
The evolution over the five years
under consideration is highly significant, representing in real terms a total
growth of 32%. According to levels of government, local government has the
highest growth (41.8%), followed by autonomous governments (23.2%) and finally
the central government (18%).
Spain/ 6. Financing of culture
6.4 Sector breakdown
Table 2:
State cultural expenditure: by sector, in thousand euro, in %, 2004
Field / Domain / Sub-domain |
Total
expenditure |
%
share of total |
Cultural Goods and Services |
446 013 |
59.48 |
Cultural Heritage |
353 639 |
47.16 |
Historical
Monuments |
150 086 |
20.01 |
Museums |
188 751 |
25.17 |
Other |
14 803 |
1.97 |
Archives |
40 560 |
5.41 |
Libraries |
51 815 |
6.91 |
Arts |
121 224 |
16.17 |
Visual Arts |
3 270 |
0.44 |
Performing Arts |
117 954 |
15.73 |
Music
and dance |
87 163 |
11.62 |
Theatre
and others |
30 791 |
4.11 |
Media |
57 525 |
7.67 |
Books |
13 666 |
1.82 |
Cinema |
43 859 |
5.85 |
Interdisciplinary |
125 138 |
16.69 |
Cultural promotion and cooperation |
37 629 |
5.02 |
Cultural Relations Abroad |
83 583 |
11.15 |
Administration |
3 926 |
0.52 |
TOTAL |
749 900 |
100.00 |
Source:
Ministry of Culture,2007.
The central government spends almost
50% of its resources for culture on the historic and artistic heritage sector,
since its area of competence covers mainly the large museums and national
monuments. The second largest area of spending is performing arts and music,
with 15.73%, and with a clear predominance of music, since the central
government is responsible for the national and lyric orchestras. In third
place, are the resources allocated to cultural diffusion and cooperation at
home and abroad, which is particularly important in a country with a high level
of internal decentralisation and a firm international commitment to Latin
America. Finally, cinema production (5.85%) concentrates a large part of the
resources on support for the culture industries.
The allocation of central government
resources among different cultural sectors has remained more or less equal
during the last four years.
Table 3:
Regional cultural expenditure: by sector, in thousands of euro, in %, 2004
Field / Domain / Sub-domain |
Total
expenditure |
%
share of total |
Cultural Goods and Services |
504 551 |
37.96 |
Cultural Heritage |
366 579 |
27.58 |
Historical
Monuments |
165 607 |
12.46 |
Museums |
147 866 |
11.12 |
Archaeological
site |
32 784 |
2.47 |
Other |
20 322 |
1.53 |
Archives |
40 545 |
3.05 |
Libraries |
97 427 |
7.33 |
Arts |
302 144 |
22.73 |
Visual Arts |
38 304 |
2.88 |
Exhibitions |
36 686 |
2.76 |
Photography |
496 |
0.04 |
Other |
1 122 |
0.08 |
Performing Arts |
263 840 |
19.85 |
Music
|
93 925 |
7.07 |
Dance |
28 086 |
2.11 |
Theatre
and Musical Theatre |
132 706 |
9.98 |
Other |
9 123 |
0.69 |
Media |
62 445 |
4.70 |
Book |
26 378 |
1.98 |
Audiovisual |
36 066 |
2.71 |
Cinema |
28 917 |
2.18 |
Video |
857 |
0.06 |
Music |
176 |
0.01 |
Other |
6 117 |
0.46 |
Interdisciplinary |
427 039 |
32.12 |
Cultural promotion and cooperation |
139 667 |
10.51 |
Cultural Relations Abroad |
680 |
0.05 |
Administration |
194 097 |
14.60 |
Linguistics policy |
66 354 |
4.99 |
Other |
26 242 |
1.97 |
Not allocable by domain |
33 159 |
2.49 |
TOTAL |
1 329 338 |
100.00 |
Source:
Ministry of Culture, 2007.
The sectors in which the Autonomous
governments are most active are historical and artistic heritage (27.58%) and
the performing arts and music (19.85%), which, together, they receive
approximately 50% of public spending on culture. The volume of spending on
heritage is due to its high symbolic value and its importance as a public asset
in the development of cultural tourism. In the case of performance arts and
music, their local importance means that the proportion of public funding is
higher. As for the rest of the sectors, interdisciplinary spending predominates
(32.12%), with significant sums allocated to cultural promotion, diffusion and
cooperation and to language policy. In any case, there are large divergences
between the various Autonomous Communities.
Spain/ 7. Cultural institutions and
new partnerships
7.1 Re-allocation of public
responsibilities
In recent years, the outsourcing of
public services has spread to the direction and management of cultural
organisations. The management of both new cultural services and existing
services that had been under direct governmental control have now been passed
into the hands of external companies or groups. This gradual process is part of
a wider trend towards the delegation of public management of a variety of
services to external organisations.
In the specific area of culture, the
process begins with the creation of public contractors (public culture
foundations or committees, as well as specialised public companies) to
accelerate management processes and provide greater flexibility in
subcontracting and management of income. At the same time, many secondary services
with little cultural impact are outsourced (catering, security, cleaning and
even the marketing of goods or services). As a result of the limits placed on
staff costs, the interest in obtaining specialised services at competitive
rates, or the erosion of internal structures linking public ownership and
public management, more and more services forming part of the cultural
administration have been outsourced. During the first phase of this process,
publicly owned cultural organisations subcontract secondary services with a
high degree of cultural content to external providers (almost all museums and
exhibition centres now have external educational and monitoring services). This
is followed by the definitive transfer of all management tasks. The process now
extends as far as community centres, municipal arts centres, galleries and
exhibition halls, archaeological sites, concert halls, theatres and even
museums.
Spain/ 7. Cultural institutions and
new partnerships
7.2 Status/role and development of
major cultural institutions
From a historical perspective,
Spain's leading cultural institutions can be divided into three groups
depending on their origins: national institutions, institutions set up by civil
society, and institutions that emerged during the period of restored democracy.
National institutions have been linked with the state from the outset and most
of them are in Madrid (Prado Museum, Royal Theatre, National Library, etc.).
The second type can usually be traced to the cultural aspirations of the
bourgeoisie at specific moments in history, particularly in those cities having
a strong industrial base, for example, Barcelona, Bilbao, Oviedo, etc. Typical
illustrations would be the Liceu Opera House in Barcelona or the Campoamor
Theatre in Oviedo. Lastly, there are initiatives undertaken over the last 20
years at various levels of government, such as the construction of several
major cultural spaces, the majority outside Madrid, thereby promoting cultural
decentralisation.
National institutions depend
entirely on the central government for funding, although boards of governors
are allowed considerable leeway in decision making. A significant number of the
other cultural institutions in the country are financed and self-managed under
agreements between different levels of government. This inter-institutional
co-operation promotes coherence in regional development strategies and,
indirectly, encourages greater self-management in day-to-day running of the
institutions.
In recent years, various national and
regional institutions have introduced changes in the procedure for appointing
directors. With these changes the government hopes to improve the objectivity,
professionalism and transparency of candidate selection. The pilot experience
of the Prado Museum has been extended to other institutions, such as the
National Library and the Reina Sofia Museum and Art Centre through the new
"Cultural Institution Modernisation Plan", approved in September
2007.
Encouraging self-management is also
aimed at increasing resources through private sector funding. Greater
management control goes hand-in-hand with greater budgetary responsibility.
Fundraising also encourages a much greater degree of co-operation with local
business circles, and enables local administrators to gain experience with
innovative and modern management techniques.
An illustrative example of this
approach can be found in the new administrative status of the Prado Museum (the
Prado Museum, 46/2003 Act). The museum is now a "special"
public institution, meaning that, under Spain's continental legal system, it
can engage in transactions governed by "private law", i.e., it is no
longer solely bound by the dictates of the "public law" under which
government and government-funded bodies are normally administered. This will
make it much easier for the Prado Museum to adapt to changing times and
changing practices in the art world. In particular, it will allow it to raise
its own funds, including 50% of its running costs (before it was allowed to
raise funds for only up to 27% of its running costs).
An equally good example is the
Barcelona Contemporary Art Museum or MACBA. It is now run by a public
consortium comprising the Barcelona City Council, the government of Catalonia,
and the MACBA Foundation which is made up of private-sector companies and its
purpose is to raise funds to buy works for the museum; works which the
Foundation will own.
Spain/ 7. Cultural institutions and
new partnerships
7.3 Emerging partnerships or
collaborations
From a legal standpoint, the
distinction in Spain between sponsorship and patronage is reasonably clear on
paper: sponsorship is regulated by the General Advertising Act (34/1988
Act) and patronage by the Act on Tax Exemptions for Non-profit making
Organisations and on Sponsorship (49/2002 Act).
Aside from household expenditure on
cultural goods there are very few figures available on private-sector capital
funding of culture. All we know is that culture is the leading recipient of
patronage and the second recipient (after sport) of sponsorship.
An important and interesting
phenomenon is that of the Cajas de Ahorro or savings banks, non-profit making
financial institutions which have been involved in funding cultural activities
for a long time. According to 2002 figures, savings banks gave euro 476.2
million to cultural initiatives, over half of the budget of the Ministry of
Culture and approximately 40% of the amount spent on culture by the autonomous
regions. In 2002, 44.5% of the money was spent either on cultural activities or
on upgrading, protecting or conserving cultural property. A significant part of
this money is earmarked for projects run by the foundations set up by the
savings banks themselves.
In Spain there is a general
consensus that the role of the "third sector" in funding culture and
cultural activities will increase with time. Strictly speaking, the third
sector only includes non-profit making organisations. In its broader sense,
however, it covers the entire social economy.
The bodies that best represent the
spirit of the third sector are, without doubt, the associations. Despite the
lack of hard evidence, two apparently contradictory observations can be made:
the level of involvement in voluntary associations is low, around 35%, only 5%
in the case of cultural or artistic associations; but the number of active
associations is amazingly high (175 689 registered in 1997, of which
64 772 came under the heading of "Cultural or ideological").
Areas in which voluntary associations are most active are folklore and cultural
property. More recently, associations have been springing up around cultural
institutions, for example, the "Friends of the xxx Theatre",
"Friends of the xxx Museum", etc.
Foundations also play an important
role. Those linked to savings banks and those set up to finance specific
cultural institutions are the most important. For details on associations and
foundations, see chapter
8.4. For information on their legal status see chapter
5.3.10.
The cultural sector is characterised
by its complexity, in which it is hard to define exactly the role played by
each of the operators: public, private or "third-sector". At the same
time, some common definition is necessary if agreement on policy objectives at
different levels of administration is to be reached. Suffice to say that in
Spain there is an expanding common ground for a meeting of minds between public
and private operators, as evidenced by the following examples:
Spain/ 8. Support to creativity and
participation
8.1 Direct and indirect support to
artists
Specific methods of providing
support to creativity in Spain are mainly given to the visual arts. Resources
are available for exhibitions and for the acquisition of artworks through funds
made available to public museums. Regional and local authorities hold competitions
and provide prize money, and retain ownership of the winning entries (see also chapter
5.3.1). There are also subsidies and commissions for symphony orchestras
(distributed by the Centre for the Diffusion of Contemporary Music) and for the
performing arts, for both national and overseas tours (distributed by the
National Institute of Performing Arts and Music).
The Ministry of Culture, in
co-operation with the Spanish Agency of International Co-operation (AECI) of
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation, develops various programmes
designed to promote contemporary Spanish artists and their art works worldwide
(see also chapter
2.4). They provide support for up-and-coming artists to participate in
major international biennials.
Another central government
institution which plays a significant role in providing support to emerging
visual artists is the Youth Institute (INJUVE), which reports to the Ministry
of Labour and Social Affairs. The Institute holds a number of annual
exhibitions and administers international tours, festivals and programmes with
travel and work grants. There are various subsidies available from other
government departments such as the Directorate-General for Cultural Cooperation
and Communication (Ministry of Culture), the Directorate-General for Scientific
and Cultural Relations (Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation), and the
Carolina Foundation, among others.
At the regional and local levels,
support for artists comes from the culture departments of regional governments,
provincial assemblies and town councils. In the bilingual regions, support for
artists is seen as an integral part of promoting the regional language. The
cultural programmes of these autonomous communities are based on generic
policies for encouraging local culture industries. One-off events, such as the
European Cultural Capital in Salamanca 2002, the "Design Year" 2003
in Catalonia, the Universal Forum of Cultures 2004 in Barcelona, and the
commemoration of the "Quixote Year" 2005 in the Castile-La Mancha
community, do much in the way of promoting and disseminating local creativity.
Spain/ 8.1 Direct and indirect
support to artists
8.1.1 Special artists funds
There are very few specific funds
for artists in Spain. One important example is the Cinematographic Protection
Fund administered by the National Institute of Cinematography and Audiovisual
Arts (ICAA) to protect and support the Spanish film industry. In 2007, the fund
will allocate approximately euro 67 million. Although the Fund subsidises primarily
companies, aid that provides to scripts or shorts can be considered aid to
individual artists.
The recent Intellectual Property
Act (23/2006) extends the rights of authors on digital supports, from CDs
to MP3 players. Nonetheless, the long debate on the reform of the law has been
marked by a clear conflict of interests between authors, producers,
distributors, radio and television companies (they are television operators
and can be public or private) and consumers' associations.
After a long litigation with the
Court of Justice of the European Communities and with a strong opposition, the
new Act for Reading, Books and Libraries modifies some aspects of the Intellectual
Property Act (23/2006) in establishing a levy on the loans made by cultural
organisations (such as libraries, museums, archives, etc.). Libraries will have
to pay euro 0.2 for each book copy acquired for loan, with an exemption solely
for public libraries of municipalities of less than 5 000 inhabitants (52%
of the total of public libraries in Spain) and those integrated in educational
institutions. Payment to the authors will be completed through the copyright
societies.
See also chapter
8.1.
Spain/ 8.1 Direct and indirect
support to artists
8.1.2 Grants, awards, scholarships
The most common tools for providing
support to artists and creators in Spain are prizes and grants. At the national
level, the main body responsible for these awards is the Ministry of Culture,
via its Directorates for Fine Arts and Cultural Assets, for Books, Archives and
Libraries, for Cooperation and Cultural Communication and the National
Institutes of Music and Performing Arts (INAEM) and Cinematography and
Audiovisual Arts (ICAA).
See also chapter
8.1.
Spain/ 8.1 Direct and indirect
support to artists
8.1.3 Support to professional
artists associations or unions
There is no stable government
support for artist associations or unions. They can apply for annual subsidies
channelled through sector-specific aid programmes but there is no set standard
for budgetary provisions or other statutory subsidies.
Spain/ 8.2 Cultural consumption and
participation
8.2.1 Trends and figures
The "Statistical Yearbook
2006", published by the Ministry of Culture in 2007, provides
information on cultural consumption and participation (figures on cultural
consumption come from the Continuous Household Budget Survey, carried
out by the National Statistics Institute and, on participation, from the
Survey of Habits and Cultural Practices in Spain, carried out by the
Ministry of Culture and the Spanish Society of Authors, Composers and
Publishers).
Cultural consumption
In 2005, Spaniards spent euro 10.4
billion on cultural goods and services; 3.6% of their total expenditure. This
figure has continued to rise significantly since 2000, when it amounted to euro
6.98 billion. Overall cultural spending, between 2000 and 2005, grew by 49%
compared to the 16.6% rise in the Consumer Price Index over the same period.
Cultural spending amounted to euro 242.7 per capita in 2005. By categories,
home-based activities dominated cultural spending, especially home
entertainment (euro 103.6) and reading (euro 70.3), which together accounted
for 71.2% of cultural spending. In the home entertainment category, spending on
computers ranked highest (euro 27), followed by the rental of cable and
satellite services (euro 22.7) and television equipment (euro 17.9). Other
cultural spending categories include attendance at cultural events such as
cinema, theatre, opera, dance, and so on, which accounted for 11.7% of cultural
spending. Within this category, spending on cinema was greater (euro 17.3) than
spending on theatre (euro 4.9) or dance performances (euro 4.8).
Between 2000 and 2005, home-based
activities made significant gains in the total spending on culture. Categories
showing an upward trend are Internet connection fees (from 0.4% in 2000 to 7.2%
in 2005), the purchase of photographic equipment (from 0.7% in 2000 to 2.3% in
2005) and the rental of cable and satellite services (from 7% in 2000 to 9.4%
in 2005). Other cultural spending categories which rose significantly were
attendance at museums, libraries and parks (from 0.6% in 2000 to 2.6% in 2005),
opera, dance and musical performances (from 1.8% in 2000 to 2% in 2005) and the
purchase of books (from 10.6% in 2000 to 11.2% in 2005).
Participation rates
By far the biggest audiences for
cultural content are television viewers (approximately 98% in all periods
considered in Table 4: 1990, 1997-1998, 2002-2003 and 2006-2007), followed by
newspaper readers (74% in the last period,2006-2007) and radio listeners (60% in
the last two periods, 2002-2003 and 2006-2007). More than a half of Spaniards
surveyed in 2002-2003 and 2006-2007 reported going to the cinema in the last
year. Cultural activities ranked lower in overall participation rates include:
attendance at dance, opera and lyrical opera (zarzuela), which remain among the
interests of a minority. In 2006-2007, only 5 % of the population indicated
that they attended a dance performance at least once a year; 3% went to the
opera and 2% to a zarzuela performance.
With respect to changes between 1990
and 2006-2007:
Table 4:
People who in the last year made or attended certain cultural activities in
Spain, in % of total population, 1990-2007
Field |
1990 |
1997-1998 |
2002-2003 |
2006-2007 |
Activities heavily subsidised by
the state |
||||
Theatre |
13.9 |
18.4 |
23.4 |
19.1 |
Opera performances |
1.4 |
1.8 |
3.0 |
2.7 |
Zarzuela |
2.7 |
2.2 |
2.6 |
1.9 |
Dance |
1.7 |
2.0 |
4.6 |
5.1 |
Concerts of classic music |
6.8 |
6.8 |
8.4 |
8.4 |
Libraries |
11.2 |
12.0 |
20.0 |
17.6 |
Museums |
27.8 |
29.3 |
27.5 |
31.2 |
Monuments |
35.6 |
37.1 |
28.8 |
34.1 |
Cultural centres |
12.4 |
10.0 |
14.1 |
22.9 |
Activities without large public
subsidies |
||||
Cinema |
39.0 |
46.7 |
55.6 |
52.1 |
To read books not related to the
profession or studies |
- |
47.8 |
49.1 |
52.5 |
To read press (at least once
monthly) |
65.9 |
69.2 |
69.7 |
73.8 |
To watch videos daily |
3.2 |
- |
3.3 |
2.4 |
To watch television |
97.6 |
98.9 |
98.0 |
98.2 |
To listen to the radio daily |
56.2 |
- |
59.6 |
60.1 |
Personal computer (frequently) |
5.9 |
- |
31.3 |
46.5 |
Internet (at least once daily) |
- |
- |
22.7 |
24 |
Source:
Ministry of Culture, several years
In 2005, the Permanent
Immigration Observatory, attached to the Ministry for Employment and Social
Affairs, published a study entitled "Consumption and leisure of Latin
American immigrants in Spain". Dividing the population by groups, the main
leisure activities of adult women were cinema, the circus (with their children)
and local institutional events. They also watch Spanish television dramas and
series, news programmes and debates. Among young adults, those who are studying
buy books and music and make the most of free events such as exhibitions,
debates, book presentations, etc.). In general, they listen to a great deal of
music on the radio, read the news on the Internet, and young women buy women's
magazines. Adolescents have clearly defined cultural interests: they listen to
"top forty" type radio programmes and listen to music with MP3s;
those who have the Internet download music and films; they know the TV
programme schedules and they go to the cinema to see the latest US film
releases. To conclude: the study shows that once they have gained a minimal
level of stability, immigrants participate actively in consumption and leisure,
and also their desire for integration is fundamentally a desire to raise their
consumption, in terms of both quantity and quality.
Spain/ 8.2 Cultural consumption and
participation
8.2.2 Policies and programmes
One of the main objectives of the
Ministry of Culture is to encourage cultural participation, which it hopes to
achieve through initiatives such as the Plan to encourage reading, the
integrated museum plan and the programme of subsidies for promoting the
performing arts and live music performances. There has not yet been any
evaluation of these programmes, however, they do seem to have contributed to
the increase in cultural consumption levels, as indicated in chapter
8.2.1.
The main initiatives to foster
participation in culture at the regional level are those based on the building
or restoration of performing arts institutions over the last twenty years as
part of the National Plan of Rehabilitation of Theatres and Concert Halls.
However, such institutions are distributed very unequally across the regions.
Contemporary arts centres built in recent times and some symphonic orchestras
also carry out activities aimed at generating new concert- or exhibition-goers
by means of introductory programmes for potential enthusiasts.
The Youth Institute and its replicas
at the regional level distribute the Euro<26 card, which gives youth
discounts of between 10% and 100% on tickets for museums, theatres, cinemas and
music festivals. There are also discounts available for pensioners and
students, usually provided by local authorities, including free entrance to
museums and discounts on cinema and theatre tickets.
There are a number of school
programmes undertaken by the main cultural institutions, many of them set up by
the National Centre of Information and Educative Communication (CNICE), which
also develops specific programmes on the Internet to introduce younger
audiences to the visual arts, literature and music. Most of the co-operation
between schools and cultural institutions, however, is facilitated by the
regional authorities.
Spain/ 8.3 Arts and cultural
education
8.3.1 Arts education
When the Ministry of Culture was
created it was assumed that education and culture required different
approaches. However, over time, the budget allocations, trained personnel and
progressive levels of schooling, demonstrated that education was considered as
one of the main contributors, albeit indirectly, to cultural policy in the
broader sense.
The main problems facing artistic
education are:
Since January 2005, following the
introduction of state legislation governing undergraduate and postgraduate
degrees, definite steps have been taken to implement a two-cycle system as
envisaged in the Bologna process. What is now needed is for degree courses to
be programmed within the framework of an educational plan that places students
centre stage, and which provides them with general, multidisciplinary skills
developed in the undertaking of activities that go beyond the traditional
curriculum. These courses should incorporate ambitious programmes of work
experience and project work so that students can make a valuable contribution
to society. All in all, these changes give plenty of scope for universities to build
on their individual research and teaching strengths and to develop their own
distinctive quality in the fields of training and education. The process, which
started with pilot schemes in some areas and in both cycles, is now official in
postgraduate courses. The first programme of official master degrees was
launched during the academic year 2006-2007.
In November 2005, the Ministry of
Industry, Tourism and Trade, through the State Secretary for Telecommunications
and Information, launched the Plan Avanza to promote Research and
Development. The most important measures in the Plan were "Internet in the
Classroom" and "Providing ITC, Connectivity and Support for
Educational Centres". The programme "Internet in the Classroom",
in which the Ministry of Education and Science also participated, and which was
carried out in collaboration with the Autonomous governments, aims above all to
reinforce and complement the policies of support for non-discriminatory
development of the Information Society in the educational environment.
Spain/ 8.3 Arts and cultural
education
8.3.2 Intercultural education
From the academic year 2007-2008,
"Education for citizenship and human rights" is part of the general
school curricula. With strong opposition, from families with children in
religious schools and the Catholic Church, the new subject, focussed on the
improvement of reciprocal understanding and the promotion of tolerance, is
being applied to primary and secondary levels by the Ministry of Education and
Science. Families with children in religious schools and the Catholic Church
think that the state can not introduce a compulsory subject whose principal
goal is the moral upbringing of students. The imposition of a matter of this
nature would conflict with the right to freedom of education of parents.)
There are intercultural education
programmes at the national and regional levels. At the national level, the Resource
Centre for Attention to Cultural Diversity in Education (CREADE) is a
Ministry of Education and Science (MEC) project, which is designed to respond
to the concerns of professionals in the educational and social spheres with
regard to cultural diversity and all its implications. It aims to provide a
place for dialogue and reflection, where people involved in education in its
broadest sense can find reference material, educational material, ICT tools,
bibliographies, experiences, research and, in general, resources for
educational action or social intervention from an intercultural perspective.
Along with its work collating and processing information and resources on
intercultural information, and maintaining and updating its portal, CREADE
organises other important lines of action: Supporting research into
intercultural education through the organisation of prizes and grants for
research; creating a Study Committee to identify and analyse good educational
practices; carrying out case studies; analysing legislation and educational
policies; formulating initiatives and developing projects; providing guidance
and training for educational centres and working teams; and publishing
materials and resources of interest to the educational, social and cultural
spheres. As well as this general programme, the Ministry of Education and
Science runs other intercultural education projects such as:
At the regional level, there also
exist numerous initiatives related to the intercultural focus of education, the
reception of immigrant pupils, the implementation of organisational and
curricular measures, linguistic and cultural support, attention to immigrant
families and training of teaching staff.
For more information, see our Intercultural Dialogue section.
Spain/ 8.4 Amateur arts, cultural
associations and community centres
8.4.1 Amateur arts
Amateur cultural activity is very
difficult to measure and the statistics available are few and far between. A
large part of pop musicians come under the heading of amateurs, along with many
visual artists. The Yearbook on Performing Arts, Music and the Audiovisual
Industry for 2005 (published by the Spanish Society of Authors, Composers
and Publishers) estimates that amateur theatre accounted for roughly 31% of
total stage performances, attended by 23.1% of total theatre-goers. Receipts
from amateur theatre performances accounted for 2.4% of total theatre receipts.
The vast majority of amateur activity is offered free of charge and is promoted
by town councils or non-profit making associations or clubs.
Spain/ 8.4 Amateur arts, cultural
associations and community centres
8.4.2 Cultural houses and community
cultural clubs
The Third National Volunteer Plan
2005-2009, an initiative of the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, contains
a series of strategic points aimed at improving voluntary activities in Spain;
albeit without specific reference to cultural activities.
Cultural associations are governed
by the Rights of Association Act of 2002 (1/2002 Act), which is
valid for all associations. Under this law, associations can benefit from a
variety of incentives, particularly those declared as being of public interest.
Aside from the incentives listed in the 1995 ministerial order on cultural
voluntary work, nationwide associations can apply to general subsidy programmes
organised by the Ministry of Culture. At the regional and local levels,
cultural associations do not specifically feature in the budget allocations of
the government, although they can apply for a variety of promotional grants and
aid offered by regional cultural departments and, to a lesser extent, by
regional youth institutes.
Mention should be made of the
neighbourhood associations, which play a key role in bringing people into
contact with culture. Of the 2 516 neighbourhood centres currently in
operation, most operate on the principle that they are the container into which
their volunteer staff can bring the content (= meaning that they are to be used
as venues for a broad range of cultural projects).
Spain/ 9. Sources and Links
9.1 Key documents on cultural policy
Bonet, L. / Dueñas, M. / Portell,
R.: El sector cultural en España ante el proceso de integración europea.
Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, 1992.
Bustamante, E. (coord.): Comunicación
y cultura en la era digital. Industrias, mercados y diversidad en España. Barcelona:
Gedisa, 2002.
Fernández Prado, E.: La política
cultural: qué es y para qué sirve. Gijón: Ediciones Trea, 1991.
Fundación Autor: La política
cultural en el municipio. El respeto a los derechos de propiedad intelectual.
Madrid: SGAE, 2002.
Fusi, J. P.: Un siglo de España.
La cultura. Madrid: Marcial Pons, 1999.
García, M. I. / Fernández, Y. /
Zofío, J. L.: The Culture and Leisure Industry in Spain. Its contribution to
GDP (1993-1997). Madrid: SGAE / Fundación Autor, 2000.
García, M. I. / Fernández, Y. /
Zofío, J. L.: La Evolución de la Industria de la Cultura y el Ocio en España
por Comunidades Autónomas (1993-1997). Madrid: SGAE / Fundación Autor,
2001.
García, M. I. y Zofío Prieto, J. L.:
La dimensión sectorial de la Industria de la Cultura y el Ocio en España
(1993-1997). Madrid: SGAE / Fundación Autor, 2003.
Garcia Jimenez, J.: Radiotelevisión
y política cultural en el franquismo. Madrid: CSIC, 1980.
Gomà, R., Subirats, J. (coord.): Políticas
públicas en España. Contenidos, redes de actores y niveles de gobierno.
Barcelona: Ariel, 1998.
National Institute of Cinematography and Audiovisual Arts: Spanish Cinema: Annual Report. Madrid: Ministry of
Culture, 2006. http://www.mcu.es/cine/CE/Anuario/Anuario.html
Jimenez-Blanco, M. D.: Arte y
Estado en la España del siglo XX. Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1989
Ministry of Culture / SGAE:
Survey of Cultural Habits and Practices 2006-2007. Madrid: Ministry of
Culture, 2007. http://en.www.mcu.es/estadisticas/MC/EHC/index.html
Ministry of Culture: The economic
value of culture in Spain. Madrid: Ministry of Culture, 2007. http://en.www.mcu.es/estadisticas/MC/VecE/Presentacion.html
Ministry of Culture: Statistical
Yearbook 2006. Madrid: Ministry of Culture, 2007.
http://www.mcu.es/estadisticas/MC/NAEC/2006/PresentacionAnuarioEC2006.html
Ministry of Education, Culture and
Sport: Culture in Spain: The Story in Figures, 2002. Madrid:
Ministry of Culture, 2002.
Ministry of Education, Culture and
Sport: Culture in Spain: The Story in Figures, 1995. Madrid:
Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport, 1995.
Ministerio de Hacienda: Presupuestos
de las Comunidades y Ciudades Autónomas. Madrid: Secretaría General
Técnica, varios años.
Ministerio de Hacienda: Presupuestos
Generales del Estrado. Madrid: Secretaría General Técnica, varios años.
National Statistics Institute: Household
Budget Continuous Survey. Madrid: National Statistics Institute,
several years. http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/um?M=%2Ft25%2Fe437&O=inebase&N=&L=1
Pérez-Rioja, J. A.: Las casas de
cultura. Madrid: Asociación Nacional de Bibliotecarios, Archiveros y
Arqueólogos, 1971.
Prieto de Pedro, J.: Cultura,
culturas y constitución. Madrid: Congreso de los Diputados, Centro de
Estudios Constitucionales, 1993.
Rubio Aróstegui, J. A.: La
política cultural del Estado en los gobiernos socialistas: 1982-1996.
Madrid: Ediciones Trea, 2003.
Spanish Society of Authors Composers
and Publishers: Anuario de las Artes Escénicas, Musicales y Audiovisuales.
Madrid: 2006. http://www.artenetsgae.com/anuario/home.html
Timoteo, J. et al.: Historia de
los medios de comunicación en España. Periodismo, imagen y publicidad
(1900-1990). Barcelona: Ariel, 1986.
Spain/ 9. Sources and Links
9.2 Key organisations and portals
Cultural policy making bodies
Ministry of Culture
http://www.mcu.es/
Directorate-General for Fine Arts
and Cultural Assets
http://www.mcu.es/jsp/plantilla_wai.jsp?area=organizacion&id=904
Directorate-General for Books,
Archives and Libraries
http://www.mcu.es/jsp/plantilla_wai.jsp?area=organizacion&id=905
Directorate-General for Cooperation
and Cultural Communication
http://www.mcu.es/jsp/plantilla_wai.jsp?area=organizacion&id=906
National Institute of Cinematography
and Audiovisual Arts (ICAA)
http://www.mcu.es/jsp/plantilla_wai.jsp?area=organizacion&id=911
National Institute of Music and
Performing Arts (INAEM)
http://www.mcu.es/jsp/plantilla_wai.jsp?area=organizacion&id=909
Ministry of Education and Science
http://wwwn.mec.es/index.html
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and
Cooperation
http://www.mae.es/
Cervantes Institute
http://www.cervantes.es/
Ramon Llull Institute
http://www.llull.com/llull/
Carolina Foundation
http://www.fundacioncarolina.es/
State Corporation for Spanish
Cultural Action Abroad
http://www.seacex.es/
State Corporation for International
Exhibitions
http://www.expo-int.com/html_en/home/index.asp
Casa de America
http://www.casamerica.es/
Casa Asia
http://www.casaasia.es/
Autonomous Region of Andalusia
http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/cultura/
Autonomous Region of Aragon
http://portal.aragob.es/servlet/page?_pageid=3931,599&_dad=portal30&_schema=PORTAL30&cuerpo.est=ITPG_CT_INICIO
Autonomous Region of Asturias
http://tematico.princast.es/cultura/cultura_web/
Autonomous Region of Balearic
Islands
http://www.caib.es/govern/organigrama/area.ct.jsp?coduo=7
Autonomous Region of Basque Country
http://www1.euskadi.net/kultura/estru_c.asp?cod=00
Autonomous Region of Canary Islands
http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/cultura/
Autonomous Region of Cantabria
http://www.gobcantabria.es/portal/page?_pageid=33,33442&_dad=interportal&_schema=INTERPORTAL
Autonomous Region of Castile-Leon
http://www.jcyl.es/jcyl-client/jcyl/cct/tkContent?idContent=35863&locale=es_ES&textOnly=false
Autonomous Region of Castile-La
Mancha
http://www.jccm.es/cultura/index.htm
Autonomous Region of Catalonia
http://cultura.gencat.net/
Autonomous Region of Extremadura
http://www.juntaex.es/consejerias/clt/home.html
Autonomous Region of Galicia
http://www.xunta.es/conselle/cultura/
Autonomous Region of La Rioja
http://www.larioja.org/web/centrales/cultura/cultura.htm
Autonomous Region of Madrid
http://www.madrid.org/cs/Satellite?idConsejeria=1109266187272&idListConsj=1109265444710&c=CM_Agrupador_FP&pagename=ComunidadMadrid%2FEstructura&pid=1109265444699&language=es&cid=1109266187272
Autonomous Region of Murcia
http://www.carm.es/educacion/
Autonomous Region of Navarre
http://www.cfnavarra.es/cultura/
Autonomous Region of Valencia
http://www.cult.gva.es/Cultura.htm
Professional associations
Association for the Mass media
Investigation
http://www.aimc.es/aimc.php
Association of Authors of Theatre of
Spain
http://www.aat.es
Association of Composers and Authors
of Music
http://www.acam.es
Association of Cultural Magazines of
Spain
http://www.arce.es
Association of Directors of Scene of
Spain
http://www.adeteatro.com
Association of Professional
Musicians
http://perso.wanadoo.es/ampe
Musical Producers of Spain
http://www.promusicae.org/
Professional Association of Writers
of Spain
http://www.acescritores.com
Spanish Association of Companies of
Restoration of the Historical Heritage
http://www.arespaph.com
Spanish Association of Managers of
Cultural Heritage
http://www.aegpc.org
Spanish Association of Museologists
http://www.museologia.net
Spanish Association of Music
Publishers
http://aedem.es/component/option,com_frontpage/Itemid,1/lang,en/
Spanish Association of Musical
Documentation
http://www.aedom.org
Spanish Association of Publishers
Guilds
http://www.federacioneditores.org
Spanish Confederation of
Associations of Archivists, Librarians, Museologists and Information
Specialists
http://www.anabad.org
Spanish Federation of Audio-visual
Producers
http://www.fapae.es
Spanish Federation of Friends of the
Museums
http://www.amigosdemuseos.com/
Spanish Federation of Societies of
Archivistic, Librarianship, Documentation and Museology
http://www.fesabid.org
Grant-giving bodies
BBVA Foundation
http://w3.grupobbva.com/TLFB/tlfb/TLFBindex_pub.jsp
CaixaGalicia Foundation
http://www.fundacioncaixagalicia.org/portal/site/Fundacion/
Caja Madrid Foundation
http://www.fundacioncajamadrid.org
Caixa de Catalunya Foundation
http://obrasocial.caixacatalunya.es/osocial/main.html?idioma=3
Juan March Foundation
http://www.march.es/indexI.asp
"La Caixa" Foundation
http://www.fundacio.lacaixa.es
Mapfre Foundation
http://www.mapfre.com/pmapfre/es/html/f03/MAPFREvida.html
Ramón Areces Foundation
http://www.fundacionareces.es/
Santander Central Hispano Foundation
http://www.fundacion.gruposantander.com/pagina/indice/0,,20000_1_55,00.html
Telefónica Foundation
http://www.fundacion.telefonica.com/arte_tecno/index.html
Vocento Foundation
http://www.vocento.net/
Winterthur Foundation
http://www1.winterthur.es/fundacion/default.htm
Cultural research and statistics
Andalusian Institute of the
Historical Heritage
http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/cultura/iaph/nav/navegacion.jsp?entrada=/portal/IAPH/PresentacionIAPH/&seccion=IAPH
Centre of Cultural Training and
Resources
http://www.diba.es/cerc
Complutensian Institute of Musical
Sciences of Madrid
http://www.iccmu.es/
General Society of Authors and
Publishers (SGAE)
http://www.sgae.es/home/en/Home.html
Interarts Foundation, Observatory
for Cultural Policies
http://www.interarts.net/eng/1.1_index.php
Library of the Spanish Filmoteca
http://www.mcu.es/jsp/plantillaAncho_wai.jsp?id=70&area=cine
National Statistics Institute
http://www.ine.es/inebase/indexi.html
Network of Centres of Documentation
of the Ministry of Culture
http://www.mcu.es/jsp/plantilla_wai.jsp?id=21&area=centrosdoc
Observatory of Galician Audio-visual
http://www.usc.es/oda
Resources of Music and the Dance in
Spain
http://cdmyd.mcu.es/BasesDeDatos.htm
Results of the General Media Study
http://www.aimc.es/aimc.php?izq=egm.swf&op=cuatro&pag_html=si&dch=02egm/24.html
Service of Documentation of the
Spanish Heritage Institute
http://www.mcu.es/patrimonio/iphe/institutoPatrimonioHistorico.jsp
SGAE Report on habits of cultural
consumption
http://www.artenetsgae.com/anuario/home.html
SGAE Survey on habits and cultural
practices in Spain
http://www.artenetsgae.com/anuario/home.html
Spanish Society of Information and
Documentation
http://www.sedic.es
SGAE Yearbook on the performing,
musical and audio-visual arts
http://www.artenetsgae.com/anuario/home.html
Statistics of the Ministry of
Culture
http://www.mcu.es/jsp/plantilla_wai.jsp?id=1&area=estadisticas
Statistics on theatre collection of
Madrid and Barcelona
http://documentacionteatral.mcu.es/recaudacion.htm
Culture / arts portals
Communication Portal of the UAB's
Institute of Communication
http://www.portalcomunicacion.com/
Latin American Portal of Cultural
Management
http://www.gestioncultural.org/
Portal of cinema
http://www.todocinetv.com/
The
Council of Europe/ERICarts "Compendium of Cultural Policies and Trends in
Europe, 9th edition", 2008