http://www.culturalpolicies.net/_grafics/logoprintbw.gif
Report creation date: 14.10.2008 - 11:34
Countr(y/ies): Russia
Chapter(s): 1,2,21,22,23,24,241,242,243,244,245,246,3,31,32,33,4,41,42,421,422,423,424,425,426,427,428,429,4210,43,5,51,511,512,513,514,515,516,517,518,519,52,53,531,532,533,534,535,536,537,538,539,5310,6,61,62,63,64,7,71,72,73,8,81,811,812,813,82,821,822,83,831,832,84,841,842,9,91,92

Russia/ 1. Historical perspective: cultural policies and instruments

The key issue of historical significance in the cultural field in Russia at the end of the 20th century was a transition from the Soviet model of cultural policies to a new one.

Cultural policy in the Soviet Union was part of the "Marxist-Leninist" ideological policy of the Communist Party that also broadly used education and enlightenment for party purposes. This system was basically formed in the 1920s and the 1930s. In the 1940s, it evolved and emphasised the strengthening of historical identities. This system remained mostly unchanged until the late 1980s, despite several superficial alterations. Its basic components were:Red Square

Priority was given to those cultural instruments with the greatest potential to disseminate information: radio, film, the press and, from the 1960s onwards, emphasis was placed more and more on television. The main task of a system of so-called "creative unions", covering the main art forms, was to control the artistic community and intelligentsia and organise their professional activities according to the needs of the Communist Party.

In 1953, the Ministry of Culture of the Soviet Union, and then those of each of the Soviet Republics, was established. The result was closed bureaucratic machinery for the administration of culture which corresponded to the general system of government. Despite this system, national cultural life was multifarious and diverse because mass involvement in officially organised cultural activities was one of the political goals. As soon as control slackened, latent tendencies became visible. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, Khruschev's reforms and the so called "thaw", raised aspirations for liberalism, including in cultural life. But the change that followed was Brezhnev's "zastoi" with its slogan of creating a new identity - "the Soviet People".

In the mid-1980s, Gorbachev initiated real changes, decreasing ideological pressure on the mass media and administrative control over cultural and educational institutions. The intelligentsia, artists and cultural workers became the most ardent supporters of "perestroika". In 1990, the Law on the Press and other Mass Media eliminated state censorship thus proclaiming abolition of ideological control. By the early 1990s, the state had also curtailed its involvement in regulating cultural matters. As the economic and political crisis culminated, the state lost interest in cultural issues... and the Soviet Union collapsed.

In December 1991, the Russian Federation (RF) was established as a new independent state, the rule of the Communist Party was banished, the Soviets of People's Deputies were re-named Dumas (as in the twilight of the tsarist Russian Empire), but the complex federal structure of the former RSFSR (Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic) was maintained. A period of radical transformation in the political, social and economic systems began and recently it was described as "a decade that shocked culture" (see reference in http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 9.1).

At first, the main goal of federal cultural policy was to guarantee freedom of expression, to preserve cultural heritage and the network of state cultural institutions. In June 1993, the government of the Russian Federation approved these goals and they formed the basis of the Federal Programme for the Development and Preservation of Culture and the Arts, 1993‑1995. The state was also inclined to curtail its engagement in the cultural field, hoping for self-supporting activities of cultural institutions, market regulations and sponsorship. The latter was only to develop in Russia in the 1990s, when financial problems were deeply felt across the whole cultural landscape. The task to totally renew the legal base of the culture sector emerged.

Public debates were focused on the contradiction between the high social status of culture and it's under-funding. The budget for culture was reduced several times and, therefore, was limited to salaries of those working in cultural institutions; that made the fight for resources the first priority. 1999 was the first year that the state cultural budget was achieved, which indicated a turn towards stability. However, public reverence for culture and the arts, particularly for high culture and artistic quality, diminished drastically. It was substituted by mass culture and entertainment, regarded first and foremost as commercial activities.

In the mid-1990s, work undertaken to elaborate the National Cultural Policies Report helped to compare Russian priorities with those developed on the European level. The Presidential Programme of cultural development for 1997-99 articulated social and political goals directed more towards development than preservation, but due to the ongoing political and economic crisis, those goals, especially that of development, have not been achieved. However, cultural life diversified changing preferences and consumption patterns.

On the eve of the 21st century it was widely acknowledged that withdrawal of ideological control and providing freedom of expression was not enough to support cultural development. Public discussions on cultural policies were centered on two main poles, one of which proposed expanding state support for cultural productions and for all types of cultural institutions that carried out important socio-cultural functions. The other view appealed for shortening the list of institutions, monuments, etc. supported by the state and to changes in their legal status including privatisation. In 2005, the Russian President proposed amendments to state social policies and though they were not concerned directly with culture, they have in a way protected the sector as provider of public goods and services for citizens.

Russia/ 2. Competence, decision-making and administration

2.1 Organisational structure (organigram)

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Russia/ 2. Competence, decision-making and administration

2.2 Overall description of the system

The state is still the main actor in cultural policies in Russia, while executive authorities maintain their key role in the cultural governance structure. The President of the Russian Federation, as the Head of State, appoints members of the federal government (including the Minister of Culture and Mass Communications) and formulates principles and priorities of policies in addresses to the Parliament. He has an advisory body called the Council on Culture and the Arts, established in 1996, to assist him in the elaboration of cultural policy. The Council was designed to keep the President in closer touch with cultural workers and the artistic community, to discuss draft laws, awards, grants, etc. Its members appointed by the Russian President include prominent cultural administrators, artists and representatives of the artists' unions.

The State Duma, together with the Federal Council, constitutes the Federal Assembly (legislature) and influences federal cultural policy by:

The State Duma has special Committees for Culture, for Ethnic Relations and for Information Policy, where laws are prepared for parliamentary discussion. The parliamentary members, in co-operation with the Ministry, lobby sector interests and needs.

The re-organisation of the Russian Government (March 2004) also meant the changes in the legal structure of executive authority offices. The new ministerial system has three levels: political (ministry), controlling (service), and administrative (agency). In that structure, agencies act as managing bodies over federal state property and institutions and deliver state services. They also distribute state funding and are in charge of tendering and contract services in their respective fields.

The Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications of the RF (MCMC) established in March 2004, elaborates and carries out federal cultural policy and proposes legal provisions for culture and the arts, historical and cultural heritage (archives included), film, mass media and mass communications. The Ministry is in charge of submitting draft legal acts for the cultural sector to the government, of putting forward a sector proposal for the federal budget, and of providing cultural policy analysis. The MCMC is responsible for the implementation of the Culture of Russia (2006-2010) Federal Target Programme (FTP); it coordinates and controls activities of the three specialised Agencies.

The MCMC Minister is a member of the Council of Ministers and is the president of 12 Expert Councils, composed of policy and decision makers, administrators, professionals, etc. Those are the Councils for State-Private Partnerships, for State Policies, for Mass Communications, for Authors' Rights and Neighbouring Rights, etc. including two Inter-ministerial Councils for Displaced Cultural Values and for Particularly Valuable Objects of Cultural Heritage of the People of the Russian Federation. The re-established Coordinating Council for Culture is aimed at involving regional decision-makers in the policy-making process.

The Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography (FACC) directly supervises culture, arts and film. It organises activities of the state cultural institutions' networks such as public libraries, museums, research and education units, acting as the main receiver and distributor of the federal budget funding. It is responsible for providing means for preservation activities and for library networks. It keeps the State Registers and Codes both of films and of cultural heritage objects and monuments, including supervising their circulation and use.

The Federal Agency for Print and Mass Communications (FAPMC) is in charge of publishing, press and printing, all types of media and public computer networks. It is responsible for providing a statutory deposit of printed materials and supports socially important broadcasting productions. The Agency manages collections of national audiovisual and broadcasting productions. It also reviews developments annually within the sector and co-operates with powerful organisations of broadcasters, publishers, and other media actors.

The Federal Archives Agency (FAA) provides related state services based on the archive collections and responds to requests of citizens. It is in charge of maintaining national Archives and publication of documents; it keeps a State Register of unique archive items; supervises disclosures and deals with acquisitions. The bulk of its finance is spent on technical provisions (rooms, facilities, copying) for preservation. The Agency directly supervises 15 Federal Archives.

In March 2007, the Federal Service within the MCMC was reorganised into the Federal Service for Supervision in Mass Media, Connectivity and Preservation of Cultural Heritage (ROSSZVYAZOHRANKULTURA) and was placed directly under the Russian Government in order to strengten its power in overcoming administrative divisions. It is to implement state protection and control over juridical issues in the fields of communications, information technologies, mass media, authors' rights and neighboring rights, in heritage preservation and use, in licensing and the circulation of cultural goods. It also has the right of legal initiative, keeps the national media Registers and provides frequency ranging services.

The Russian Federation incorporates 86 administrative and territorial units (some of which are based on ethnicity), with different political status: Republics, Krais (Provinces), Oblasts (regions), Autonomous Oblasts, Autonomous Districts and the cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg. Since 2000, these units are additionally clustered into 7 Federal Districts, each of which is headed by the Plenipotentiary Representative of the Russian President and can provide a framework for bigger cultural projects. The state structures in the regions generally mirror Federal ones and are of primary importance for the regional cultural governance. The heads of regional cultural administrations and those of the MCMC and Agencies make up the Coordinating Council for Culture.

In 2005, according to a presidential initiative, the Public Chamber of the RF was established to fill the gap between government and public organisations and to involve the latter in the decision-making process. It has 17 Commissions, including those for Tolerance and Liberty of Conscience; for International Co-operation and Public Diplomacy; for Communications, Information Policies, and Freedom of Speech in the Mass Media; for Cultural Development; for Development of Philanthropy, Charities and Volunteering; and for Preservation of Cultural and Spiritual Heritage. The most effective instruments of the Commissions are the ability to intervene directly in conflict situations and to have access to expertise when developing legislation.

Russia/ 2. Competence, decision-making and administration

2.3 Inter-ministerial or intergovernmental co-operation

Inter-ministerial co-operation in culture is the result of an overlap of functions and policy interaction. For example, the Ministry of Finance sets budget regulations, thus defining the forms and extent of state support to culture and mass media, while the Federal Customs Service regulates trans-border circulation of cultural goods. Many Ministries have preserved their own networks of cultural institutions (e.g. clubs, orchestras, theatres, etc.), while the Ministry of Education and Science supervises its own system of libraries, culture and arts centres for children and youth.

In 2004, the Ministry for Regional Development (MRD) was established and became responsible for social and economic issues in the units of the Russian Federation. It is in charge of interethnic relations, cultural dialogue, cross-border co-operation, protection of ethnic minorities' and indigenous peoples' rights. The Minister also supervises the Federal Agency for Construction, Housing, and Communal Services, which is in charge of city planning, architecture, related education, and practices.

The Federal Target Programmes (FTP), including those for regional development, is the budget instruments through which inter-sector activities are organised. The Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications (MCMC) is involved in 25 FTPs, e.g. those of Preservation and Development of Architecture in Historical Cities (2002-2010), E-Russia (2002-2010), Children of Russia (2007-2010), Social Development of Rural Areas towards 2010, Reconstruction of the Economy and Social Sphere in the Chechen Republic, in development programmes for the Bashkortostan and Tatarstan Republics, for the Far East and Transbaikalia, etc. Different ministries also interact in organising events within the Year of the Russian Language Programme (2007), namely the Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications and the Ministries of Education and Science and of Foreign Affairs.

Russia/ 2.4 International cultural co-operation

2.4.1 Overview of main structures and trends

A breakthrough in international cultural co-operation in the 1990s resulted from opening the borders of Russia for travel and exchange and from intensifying cultural links at governmental levels. In 1996, the National Report on Cultural Policies in the Russian Federation celebrated the Russian Federation's membership of the Council of Europe. It also marked a period of commitment to international agreements and conventions in the cultural field. The latter are of great importance, as the Constitution of the Russian Federation proclaims the priority of international legal norms over national ones.

Since 2004, emphasis has been placed on advancing the cultural component in international relations and on transmitting a "positive image" of Russia abroad. Cultural and artistic events accompany important diplomatic and international actions, e.g. the 2006 G8 Summit, the Russian presidency at the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe in May - November 2006 and the annual St. Petersburg Economic Forums.

Political stress is put on developing cultural co-operation within international organisations, e.g. the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) uniting former Soviet Republics, the Shanghai Co-operation Organisation, the Arctic Council, etc., on cultural interaction with the European Union, on participation in the related activities of the Council of Europe and UNESCO.

Negotiating and signing bilateral treaties on cultural co-operation is an ongoing process. Larger scale activities organised as a result of bilateral cultural cooperation are primarily held in Europe or in Asia. For example, in 2007, the Year of Chinese Culture was held in Russia and it was decided to hold yearly Russian Culture Festivals in Japan until 2011.

A programme of cultural co-operation between members of the Union State of Russia and Belarus is included in the Concept of Social Development of the Union State until 2010. An important cultural event is the annual "Slavyanski Bazaar in Vitebsk" Festival first initiated between "Slav Republics" - Ukraine, Belarus' and Russia (see http://festival.vitebsk.by/en/index.html).

Russia/ 2.4 International cultural co-operation

2.4.2 Public actors and cultural diplomacy

The Russian President initiates many international cultural activities assisted by the Board for Inter-regional and Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries within the Russian President's Administration. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA) carries out diplomatic activities providing a framework for development of international cultural co-operation. In 2001, the Minister adopted the first MFA concept for promotion of cultural links abroad, which proposed international cultural co-operation as an equal instrument for advancing foreign policy. The Foreign Policy Review submitted by the MFA (2007) announced growing importance and diplomatic support for inter-civilisation dialogue, cultural co-operation and public diplomacy. The MFA and its institutions abroad take active part in celebrating 2007 as the Year of the Russian Language.

In 2002, the Russian Centre for International Scientific and Cultural Co-operation (ROSZARUBEZHTSENTR) was put under the MFA. It is responsible for the institutional network in 68 countries, which offers information, training courses in Russian language, promotes Russia literature and culture abroad. Its representatives also support the Russian-speaking communities abroad, offer Russian scholarships and organise education programmes in Russia for foreign students. In addition, the Centre supports links between Russian and foreign NGOs.

The Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications (MCMC) and its Agencies negotiate and realise bilateral inter-ministerial agreements on cultural co-operation, discuss restitution issues, and participate in the programmes of international cultural organisations, the Minister took part in the first EU-Russian Permanent Partnership Council on Culture on the 25th October 2007 in Lisbon. The Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography negotiates with related foreign ministries and adopts plans of cultural collaboration, "exports" Russian culture and arts, manages international cultural events in Russia and organises cultural exchanges.

Cultural co-operation in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) foresees the development of specialised institutional structures. In August 2005, an Agreement on Humane Cooperation was signed; the following year, the Council for Humanitarian Co-operation and related Fund were established to provide for multilateral projects in the fields of culture, education, science, etc. In 2006, the First CIS Intelligentsia Forum was held and re-established the institutional framework for co-operation of artists and intellectuals.

Russia/ 2.4 International cultural co-operation

2.4.3 European / international actors and programmes

The UNESCO Moscow office acts as a cluster unit for Russia and some of the former Soviet Republics. Particular emphasis is placed on the "Information for All" programme, which promotes development of information technologies and e-culture. Joining the UNESCO Conventions and other agreements introduces new understanding of modern cultural processes, however, the latest cultural conventions (such as the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage) are not ratified yet.

That is also true for the Council of Europe documents some of which are going through the ratification process in the Russian Federation (see http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 5.1.9). Overall, co-operation with the Council of Europe in different domains is of growing importance. Promotion of tolerance and cultural co-operation together with advancement of a common space with no divisions in Europe were stated as targets of the Russian presidency of the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe (May - November 2006). Particular stress was placed on educational programmes and youth contacts. In September 2006, a related International Conference on "Inter-cultural and inter-religious dialogue" was held in Nizhniy Novgorod.

The Russian Federation actively participates in cultural activities within the Barents Region. Its productive phase began in 1993 and, since then, effective links and modern patterns of regional co-operation were developed in the Karelia Republic, Murmansk and Archangel Oblasts and Nenets Autonomous District. In January 2006, the first meeting of the Ministers of Culture within the Arctic Council, on Arctic partnership as a basis for the preservation of the traditional culture of the indigenous peoples, was held in Khanty-Mansiisk.

Russia/ 2.4 International cultural co-operation

2.4.4 Direct professional co-operation

Direct professional co-operation includes all types of exchanges (of exhibitions and collections, students, teachers and experts, books and library information, festivals and cultural events, etc.), which can be limited due to the scarcity of resources available. The best theatre companies and orchestras participate in cultural events abroad, organised by the Agencies in charge, while a lot of regional artists have to take all the risks on their own and act as independent operators. The Russian Government permanently calls for the removal of visa barriers in Europe that will facilitate international mobility for artists and cultural workers.

Among the interesting examples of regional cooperation is the "Altargana" festival showcasing the Buryat culture, arts, literature, film, and sports (see: http://culture.e-baikal.ru/festival). The festival was first organised in 2002 and takes place on a biannual basis with the support of the federal administration and the government, the parliament and the Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications of the Buryat Republic. It aims at intensifying cross-border cooperation and attracting Russian and foreign tourists.

Russia/ 2.4 International cultural co-operation

2.4.5 Cross-border intercultural dialogue and co-operation

New forms of international cultural co-operation, and cultural projects with foreign participation, were initiated by the "richer" regions in the early 1990s, when "desetatisation" of international co-operation expanded and trans-frontier events flourished. For Russian regions, they were of particular value because of a critical financial deficit in the cultural sector thus providing them with the resources for e.g. emergency heritage preservation. The Nordic countries, in particular, placed an emphasis on developing special relations with neighboring territories, e.g. helping to restore wooden architectural monuments in Archangel Oblast'.

Almost all the border regions have concluded bilateral agreements with neighbouring foreign territories and organise tourist activities and cultural exchanges. However, the federal Ministries are recovering control over cross-border cultural co-operation. In July 2007, the Ministry for Culture and Mass Communications held a particular meeting concerned with the issues of cross-border dialogue and development of the cultural services in the border regions of the RF. Urgent actions to improve funding for cultural institutions and heritage objects in border regions were proposed, together with the statutory introduction of a cultural dimension into the Federal Target Programmes of economic and social development in border territories.

For more information, see our Intercultural Dialogue section. 

Russia/ 2.4 International cultural co-operation

2.4.6 Other relevant issues

Information is currently not available.

Russia/ 3. General objectives and principles of cultural policy

3.1 Main elements of the current cultural policy model

According to the Basic Law on Culture (1992), state cultural policy (or state policy in the field of cultural development) means both principles and norms that the state follows in its actions to preserve, develop and disseminate culture and state activities in the field. During the past decade, cultural policy priorities shifted from state administration of cultural institutions and funding, mainly heritage preservation, to more diverse principles of managing cultural affairs. Accordingly, a cultural policy model evolved from being centralised and based on state governance to a more complex and commercialised one.

Since 2004, the Federal Government, in the spirit of better transparency and more effective budget spending, has introduced sector programming and target planning, launched re-distribution of responsibilities between the three levels within the general administrative reform, provided regulations for changing the juridical status of the former state cultural, training and research institutions and fostered partnership development in the social and cultural sphere. In 2005, four "National Projects" were initiated by the Russian President (in education, medical care, housing and rural development), making current state policies more socially oriented.

As the result, the responsibilities for cultural affairs are being de-centralised, new policy-makers are becoming involved and entrepreneurial behavior is being rewarded. Regional and local policy-makers are being mandated to wider tasks in the cultural sector, which makes the cultural policy landscape even more diverse.

Russia/ 3. General objectives and principles of cultural policy

3.2 National definition of culture

The national understanding of culture is based upon a high esteem for its fundamental social and ethical role. This idea was shaped by the Russian intelligentsia and accepted by mass consciousness and political discourse. For the secular democratic state of a culturally diverse Russia, the main role of culture is widely understood as providing a basis for the spiritual and moral orientations, for symbolic social cohesion and formation of national ideas, and as a foundation of nation integrity. However, there is no definition of culture in the Basic Law on Culture (1992) as Article 3, concerned with definitions, omits "culture" (it includes notions of cultural activities, value, and goods, of a creative activities worker, of cultural heritage and assets, of cultural policy etc.).

Recently, at all official levels, culture and cultural heritage are addressed as the whole system of values that underpins national identity, influences all sectors of society and is stated as a source of pride and patriotism. In mass consciousness, culture is also understood as a public good and public domain that includes mass media as a means of dissemination. There is also a trend to revise private responsibilities in the cultural field and to estimate importance of private initiative in cultural policy making.

Russia/ 3. General objectives and principles of cultural policy

3.3 Cultural policy objectives

Discussions that followed the National and the European experts' reports on cultural policy in Russia, and its presentation to the Culture Committee of the Council of Europe (1996), favoured the development scenario, which was in accordance with the ideas and principles set out in the documents of the Council of Europe and UNESCO. Since then, current aims of cultural policy, as formulated in official documents, emphasise the importance of classical culture and national cultural traditions, creativity and protection activities, access to culture and artistic education.

In the Medium-term Programme of Social and Economic Development of the Russian Federation (2006-2008), which is generally aimed at raising welfare and diminishing poverty, the Federal Government formulates its goals in terms of managing state cultural property and financial efficiency. Cultural policies are linked to the obligations of the social state and are intended to provide equal access to cultural goods and a high quality of cultural services. General strategic goals of the Russian Government include developing cultural and spiritual potential and fostering social and cultural modernisation.

For the cultural sector, strategic objectives for 2008-2010 were presented in the recent Report by the Minister of Culture and Mass Communications (July 2007) as follows:

Those objectives are to assert cultural rights as stated in the Constitution of the RF and their aim is to strengthen collective and individual cultural identities and to diversify national culture.

The Culture of Russia 2006-2010 Federal Target Programme, which is to accumulate funding for the most important activities, states its targets as follows:

Investment in culture is interpreted as investment in social capital in the Programme.

Russia/ 4. Current issues in cultural policy development and debate

4.1 Main cultural policy issues and priorities

In the 1990s, cultural policies were much less influential in the field than general budget policy or the economic situation on the whole. On the eve of the new century, cultural policies became more significant and developed between the opposite poles of preserving traditional state patronage and transition to the diversified model of financing, supporting and promoting culture. Although a better understanding of culture as a resource for sustainable development and a stimulus for social cohesion gradually gains ground, the cultural sector on the whole remains the least "politically" important.

The Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications (MCMC) lobbies the interests of the sector and makes efficiency of budget spending a priority. To measure its success, quantitative indicators are introduced, e.g. numbers of national films in screening; cultural heritage and archive objects renovated and preserved in proper condition; new artistic creations in the repertoire of performing companies; book supplies for public libraries, numbers of visits to cultural institutions, etc.

In collaboration with the European Union, the MCMC worked out typical partnership agreements on co-operative activities with administrations and institutions in achieving strategic objectives of cultural policy, in realisation of the sector programmes and targets planned. The Ministry also elaborates standards to prevent a decline in volume and quality of cultural services provided to the population. A special sociological review on quality and access to state cultural services provided satisfaction rates as follows: 82,6% for museums; 78.3% for libraries; 85.3% for theatres.

Hopes for re-distributing responsibilities, for privatising and for developing partnerships, has resulted in a general decline in the federal culture budget planned from 2009 (see http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 6.1). However, this trend could threaten regional and local cultural institutions because the lower economic potential of some regions (and territories) makes federal support for culture still vital. Privatisation is also generally opposed both by cultural professionals and the general public.

Support for technological advancement in the cultural sector has become another priority that is changing the cultural landscape and practices. Computerisation, digitalisation, development of new media, growth of the Russian Internet section (RuNet) and streaming are revolutionising the whole sector. Recently, artistic innovations, even those shocking traditional tastes are also gaining more state support, a good example of which is the Biennale of Modern Art in Moscow (see http://2nd.moscowbiennale.ru/en/).

Russia/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and debates

4.2.1 Cultural minorities, groups and communities

Cultural diversity is an historic element of Russia, where one can find all world religions and almost every type of religious belief, several different language families and very different natural surroundings. According to the Census of 2002, 79.8% of the population is ethnic Russians; however it also indicates that 29 of 145 million of the population belong to 180 other ethnic groups.

All the groups enjoy equal rights, while the indigenous peoples' rights are supported by particular legislation (see http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 5.3.10). Traditionally, the issues concerned with multiculturalism are tackled within the concepts of ethnicity, of peoples' friendship (as it was formulated in Soviet times) and recently of inter-religious dialogue. In the 1990s, Russia survived a so-called ethnic and religious revival that re-established values and beliefs (neglected or even restrained in the USSR) and re-enforced ethnicity as a basis for political and cultural identity.

The last decade of the 20th century was also characterised by intensive migration processes within Russia and immigration from the former Soviet Republics. Permanent decline in population numbers makes active immigration policy a top political priority, the most important issues of which are legalisation, support for qualified labour migration, and regulation of migration flows. Cultural rights of non-citizens are not limited. However, the gastarbeiter flow is, in part, illegal. According to official statements, there are about 10-12 million illegal immigrants in the RF, who are not entitled to any social support or regulation.

The Law on National Cultural Autonomy provides the legal basis for cultural self-organisation of ethnic minorities and the Diasporas (see http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 5.3.10). There were 578 National Cultural Autonomies (NCA) in 2004, and 662 on 1 January 2007. These organisations are supported by regional administrations and receive state funding e.g. the RF Government supported the celebration of the 130th anniversary of the Korean settlement in Russia (September 2004), which included multiple cultural events, mass media presentations, and programmes on modern Korean film on the State TV Channel "Kultura".

With cultural partnerships within the CIS promoted, related ethnic Diasporas become more and more explicit and important target groups for festivals and other events organised at the intergovernmental level, which give the members of these Diasporas the opportunity to hear their mother tongue, to see their national dances, or to listen folk music.

Russia/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and debates

4.2.2 Language issues and policies

Russian is the official language all over the Russian Federation; Republics have additional official "title" languages (e.g. Ingush language in the Ingush Republic). Russian remains a basic means of communication and creates a common cultural space throughout the country: according to the Census of 2002, 98.2% of the population use Russian. The "Russian Language" Federal Target Programme (2006-2010) is aimed at establishing Russian as the state language and its promotion as a means of economic, human, and juridical integration within the CIS. It is also aimed at supporting Russian language and literature scholarships throughout the world. 2007 was declared the Year of the Russian Language with many events organised in Russia and abroad to stimulate interest in its study and use as a means of intercultural communication.

There are more than 150 living languages and dialects, ethnic and local ones that in most cases are very different from Russian. The law declares support for the use of all the other languages. Minorities, whatever their number or administrative affiliation, are entitled to use their mother tongue in everyday life, in official documents of local importance, in mass media (press, regional radio and television, etc.) and literature. Nevertheless, special state support for publishing in minority languages is not enough to create a viable industry (see Table 1 in http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 4.2.6).

Russia/ 4.3 Recent policy issues and debates

4.2.3 Intercultural dialogue: actors, strategies, programmes

Intercultural dialogue is an implicit and traditional part of cultural and social policy in Russia as a culturally diverse country; Soviet concepts of "interethnic relations" or "peoples' friendship" are the common substitutes for "dialogue". Diversity is understood first and foremost as ethnicity, that is why cultural matters are often placed in an "ethnographic" sense and linked to ethnic and cultural specifics which are demonstrated via folk festivals, inter-regional exchanges, etc.

The main political document in the field is the Concept of State National (ethnic) Policy (1996) which is currently being revised. According to the proposals of the Public Chamber (2007), this concept should be based on contemporary notions of ethnic and cultural diversity, and human rights thus laying new principles for managing a diverse society.

Conversely, there are no explicit policies towards new cultural groups or semi-legal migrants except their assimilation and cultural integration. Several programmes have been developed at the regional level, e.g. Samara Regional Target Programme "Different but Not Strange - Peace through Culture" (2004-2008). Such projects are developed partly as a result of international co-operation and discussions on cultural dialogue promoted by international partners. However in 2006, sociological surveys revealed an increase in negative attitudes to ethnic migration from the former Soviet Republics or from the North Caucasus, especially when ethnic diversity had religious implications.

The dialogue of administration with National Cultural Autonomies (NCA - a particular type of public organisation established by ethnic groups and organised at the different administrative levels in Russia) and religious communities (mainly Orthodox and Muslim), is coordinated by the Ministry for Regional Development. Routine cultural interaction of public organisations with strong ethnic, religious or parochial roots are mainly organised by municipal and regional authorities. In large cities, teaching tolerance also became an instrument of promoting dialogue.

The "Friendship Houses" serve as focal points for actors and activities, many of which belong to the "folk" cultural movement. The most popular activities organised by NCAs are amateur performing arts, establishment of libraries and audio archives in mother tongues, and language courses. Exhibitions, festivals, competitions, and publications are typical forms of support organised for ethnic and religious cultures of Russia.

At the federal level, major celebrations are held, including the 1 000th anniversary of the city of Kazan - the Tatarstan metropolis (2005) and the 300th anniversary of Khakassia joining the Russian State (2007), which are widely reported in the mass media and include important cultural modules. Another means of assistance proposed by policy-makers is active support and preservation of traditional culture and intangible heritage, which is of particular importance for rural dwellers (27% of population) and ethnic communities.

For more information, see:
Database of Good Practice on Intercultural Dialogue and our Intercultural Dialogue section.

Russia/ 4.3 Recent policy issues and debates

4.2.4 Social cohesion and cultural policies

Until recently, neither public opinion surveys nor governmental programmes explicitly created a link between cultural policy and social cohesion, which remained an issue mainly of scientific research. The role of culture in strengthening social links was touched upon in the 2007 Presidential Address to the Parliament. Results of a 2003 survey in the Republic of Karelia, Pskov and Novgorod Oblasts showed that policy or decision-makers, as well as the general population, do not recognise those issues or see culture as a component of quality of life.

Surveys of a more general nature have revealed a decrease in feelings of trust and a devaluation of co-operation, reciprocity principles and mutual respect in modern Russia. Comparative VCIOM (see http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 9.1) research into interpersonal trust (2005), discovered that it is lower in Russia than in the EU (45% compared to 54% of those who always or often trust people, and 23% compared to 11% of those who almost never trust). Almost all current surveys reveal a mass feeling of moral and general culture degradation.

The same surveys demonstrate a belief in the direct correlation between high culture and social ethics and show attitudes towards the state support and promotion of cultural institutions and values as a means to strengthen moral values. Investigations into the Russian national character, undertaken in 2003 by the ROMIR Monitoring, revealed adherence to traditional values and a high regard for classical culture of the 19th century (49% of respondents). Results from the VCIOM show that public opinion displayed an eagerness for active cultural revitalisation and a need for cultural programmes facilitating social cohesion, particularly in view of strained inter-ethnic relations.

Russia/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and debates

4.2.5 Media pluralism and content diversity

Before March 2004, mass media and publishing were never officially included in the overall definition of the cultural sector in Russia. After 2004, responsibility for the mass media was passed to the new portfolio of the Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications (MCMC). The Minister stated that cultural content and its quality were to be new priorities. The influence of the MCMC in a highly commercialised and politicised sector is, however, limited. In July 2006, this situation got a chance to improve, when the government decided to join the European Convention on Trans-border TV, which includes standards on content quality and advertising, important issues for Russia at the moment.

According to data published by the Federal Agency for Print and Mass Communications (FAPMC) on 1 January 2006, there were 66 931 registered media companies, of which 14 290 specialise in e-media. The State Russian Television and Radio Broadcasting Company (RTR) has 83 regional branches, which cover almost all of the territory of the Russian Federation. At the beginning of 2006, there were 1 816 registered e-periodicals in the "RuNet" (Russian language section of the Internet); the latter becoming the main information source for the younger generation.

Despite cessation of direct state funding of the media, the FAPMC provides for:

One of the main priorities outlined in the Concept of Developing Broadcasting in Russia for 2006-2015 is to increase the number of national programmes reaching the mass population. It also emphasizes: the need for additional resources to translate programmes targeted for ethnic, religious, and language minorities; the importance of establishing national public television and non-governmental channels for different sociocultural groups (e.g. for children); the significance of developing international broadcasting; and technical modernisation (digitalisation) in broadcasting.

Current policy issues such as anti-trust measures, the high fees for delivering periodicals via the Russian Post and VAT rates for delivery services, or language and content diversity of the regional press are discussed in the Commission for Communications, Information Policies, and Freedom of Speech in Mass Media of the Public Chamber. They have addressed preservation of free access to the existing volume of TV translations after digitalisation (decoders will be required), and freedom of speech violations that are frequent at the regional level. The Public Chamber also proposed to the government to develop a grant system and professional competitions for media productions with ethnic cultural content and in the languages of the peoples of Russia.

Whereas the impact of the mass media on current public consciousness is enormous (though sociological surveys show a decrease in levels of trust towards the e-media), broadcasters underestimate their own cultural mission and refer to low commercial potential of culture and arts, heritage and cultural educative translations as a reason for limiting their volume especially on TV. The complaints about the low cultural competence of many journalists, and regarding the lack of respect in evaluating art events, are common. In that sense, the 1990s were most controversial when the cultural content of mass media productions was usually restricted to the translation of Western (American) or westernised domestic mass culture products. Joining the WTO could establish additional barriers to give preferential treatment to domestic productions. Nevertheless, Soviet films (from the 1930s to the 1970s) and new domestic productions disseminated on TV are getting more and more popular (also among the younger generation). They are also important for the Russian speaking population in the former Soviet Republics.

Russia/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and debates

4.2.6 Culture industries: policies and programmes

In March 2004, the Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications (MCMC) was created which gave the state a mandate and role to develop policies in the fields of film, broadcasting and publishing. While efforts have been made to fulfill this mandate, state policies covering the different sectors of the culture industries have yet to be adopted.

According to expert estimates, market-oriented culture industries will increase in number and their rates of return are expected to grow in the near future. At the moment, policy makers almost ignore the economic effects of the culture industries, whereas their development was promoted within the Cultural Policy Institute Projects with international participation and in partnership with the Council of Europe (for more information consult the website: http://eng.cpolicy.ru/projects/c_industries/index.html).

Below is an overview of developments according to sector:

Cinema: In the 1990s, state financing, public attendance and film production dropped. From 1991 to 1999, the number of feature films produced decreased from 375 to 27 films per year, and the cinema community passed through a severe crisis. For example, in 1999, only 5 animated cartoons were released, all of them supported with state finances (in comparison with 38 in 1991).

In 2002, the Governmental Act in Support of National Film Production and Screening set new goals i.e., to produce 100 feature films, 65 animated cartoons and up to 330 documentaries annually by 2006, which has proved effective (one feature film receives 29 million RUB). An increase in private investment in film production has lead to the gradual curtailing of state funding. In 2006, the Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography (FACC) dedicated particular support to documentaries (about 500 titles, which is to increase by 21%, representing a change in genre based priorities) and in 2007, the federal TV channels launched related projects to broadcast them.

Table 1:     Film productions in Russia, 1991-2007

 

1991

1995

2000

2003

2004

2005

2007*

Feature films

     with state support

375

24

51

35

51

34

73

60

93

79

94

83

200

130

Animated cartoons

     with state support

38

38

13

12

22

10

40

32

75

68

67

65

80

Documentaries

     with state support

...

450

167

159

246

87

369

334

389

330

606

515

 

Source:      Gosudarstvenny komitet RF po statistike: Rossijsky statistichesky ezhegodnik, 2006. Ofits. izd. (State Committee of the RF for Statistics: Russian Statistical Yearbook, 2006, Official editions. Moscow, 2006). Moskva, 2006.
*                 The Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography estimations.

Another goal is to develop national film screening and to re-establish cinemas as popular leisure centres. The Governmental Act of 2002 increased the share of national films to be exhibited in cinemas up to 25%. As policy makers continuously reject the idea of setting national quotas, it is difficult to enforce. Film festivals are growing in number and take place in more locations throughout the RF territory; they receive state financial support and are treated as a means of encouraging cinema visitors. Strategies until 2015 presuppose development of competitiveness of Russian films, preservation of the cinema heritage, technological improvements, and content development of productions. 

Table 2:     Film screening according to productions, 1995-2005

Films on screen

1995

2000

2003

2004

2005

Total

168

193

280

315

308

Russia

51

48

53

77

90

USA

67

94

122

134

126

France

13

25

41

31

30

other European countries

32

42

87

71

39

Source:      Gosudarstvenny komitet RF po statistike: Rossijsky statistichesky ezhegodnik, 2006. Ofits. izd. (State Committee of the RF for Statistics: Russian Statistical Yearbook, 2006, Official editions. Moscow, 2006). Moskva, 2006.

Broadcasting: State TV and radio remain the backbone of the whole system and reach almost all the population (see http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 8.2). The Charter of TV Broadcasters acknowledges the role of the media in the preservation and development of national cultural values but does not outline specific provisions on these matters. TV broadcasters provoke criticism for their lack of social and cultural responsibilities, political engagement (especially in the regions) and deficient positive content. Overall, TV is permanently criticised for commercial advertising abuse, which is the reason why commercial advertising has been eliminated on the "Kultura" TV channel, supported by the state. Particular assistance is also given to the "Orpheus" radio station which plans to begin streaming in 2007 to increase audiences and especially to address the younger generation. Generally, there is a need for supporting development in regional translations of specialised channels.

National crime serials and soaps replaced the Latin American ones in prime time and together with feature films are increasingly presented on TV, many of them reaching the top ratings. Leading TV companies are also involved in bigger projects of higher quality, like the serial "Idiot" after F.Dostoyevsky in 2003. The total success of that production stimulated new ones based on the national literature "hits", e.g. "Doctor Zhivago" by Boris Pasternak (2005) or "The First Circle" by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (2006). On the whole, those projects are exceptional in the general TV landscape which is dominated by mass market entertainment together with talk- and reality-shows.

Publishing: In the 1990s, public support was mainly allocated to textbooks as part of the educational policy programmes and the sociocultural importance of literature has been largely underestimated. In 2005, in line with the general state policy to eliminate tax exemptions, a general 18% VAT rate was imposed on the press and publishing and only retailing books with scientific and cultural content are charged a 10% VAT rate (those editions were VAT-exempt before 2002).

Table 3:     Books, periodicals and newspapers published, 1980-2005

Year

 

Books

Periodicals

Newspapers

Titles
(thousand)

Copies (million)

Titles

Copies
(million)

Titles

Copies per year(billion)

1990

Total no.

No. in Russian

41.2

37.7

1 553.1

1 499.8

3 681

3 389

5 010

4 915

4 808

4 488

37.7

37.4

1995

Total no.

No. in Russian

33.6

31.3

75.0

449.0

2 471

2 343

299

289

5 101

4 779

8.8

8.6

2000

Total no.

No. in Russian

60

56.9

471

445.0

3 570

3 422

607

601

5 758

5 508

7

6.97

2002

Total no.

No. in Russian

69.7

66.8

591.0

570.0

4 315

4 108

1 164

1 155

6 663

6 288

6.2

6.1

2004

Total no.

No. in Russian

89.0

85.4

686

662

4 674

4 474

976

968

7 517

7 164

8.1

7.8

2005

Total no.

No. in Russian

96.0

93.1

669.0

659.7

4874

4672

1 150

1 141

7 535

7 166

7.30

7.16

Source:      Russian Statistical Yearbook 2003-2006, Moscow, 2003-2006.

The Federal Agency for Print and Mass Communications (FAPMC) expected to publish more than 100 000 books in 2006, the highest figure ever. In 1992, there were 8 830 copies of books published per 1 000 of the population, in 2000 the number was 3 250. In 2007, the FAPMC estimates printing 4 886 copies of books with educative, scientific and cultural content per 1 000 of the population, which will be increased up to 5 024 in 2010. The main character of the modern book market, if compared to the Soviet one, is the diversity of titles and content with a respective reduction in the number of copies. The bulk of books consist of crime and women's novels, while the diversity of titles is provided with state support for literary, educative, reference books and other publications dedicated to children, youth and the disabled. Translations are produced with the support of national funds or particular programmes, e.g. the "Pushkin Programme" of the French Government.

On the whole, the magazine market is dynamic. The FAPMC estimates that, overall in 2007, there will be 13 200 copies of magazines published and 57 750 newspaper copies per 1 000 of the population and the next three years those quantities will be kept. There is a modest growth in the number of periodicals concerned with culture, arts, architecture, design, antiquaries, etc. In 2005, FAPMC allocated 47.6 million RUB and, in 2006, 150.6 million RUB to support "socially significant" periodicals.

Sound and video recording industries are almost entirely private, non transparent, and pirated, the basis for the latter caused by the prohibitive prices of legal productions (foreign in particular) and by the underdevelopment and improper use of actual political and juridical instruments. State policy in that field is linked to joining the WTO process and aims at combating piracy and regaining control over the audio-visual market.

The related results of these activities are the 2003 restrictions on licensing, production, and trade in the audiovisual sector and a planned licensing of computer games and other similar productions. Responsibility for fighting piracy is given to the Ministry of Internal Affairs while protection of intellectual property in culture is within the competence of the Federal Service for Supervision in Mass Media, Connectivity and Preservation of Cultural Heritage. The anti-piracy campaign is not very effective, as illegal production (85% by expert estimations) continues to dominate the market and has become a normal part of legal business (in the form of hiding information on actual numbers of copies produced, which is also typical for publishing). Legal producers practice domestic dumping to make piracy unprofitable.

Russia/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and debates

4.2.7 Employment policies for the cultural sector

In 2006, there were about 800 000 full time employees working in arts and culture institutions under the MCMC (in 2004 there were 840 000). The problem is that these workers receive the lowest salaries compared to all other professions in the public sector. The task to increase salaries in the public sector was formulated in 2005; however the situation has not changed and in 2007, the head of the Federal Archives Agency complained of the difficulty in filling 30% of vacancies in state archives.

Average wages in the cultural sector generally correlate to the national minimum levels of subsistence. The consequence has been the general shortage of staff, lack of younger people entering the field and a sector "brain drain". The work of cultural sector employees is not stable and about a quarter of them change jobs each year. A rise in salaries was also named as a crucially important measure to prevent thievery from cultural institutions such as libraries, museums, archives, etc, especially at the regional level (see also Table 4 below). Those issues were also publicly discussed since the summer 2006 when news of the Hermitage larceny came out.

Table 4:     Salary in the cultural sector in RUB and euros, 2000-2006

 

Minimum level of
subsistence for working population

Average monthly salary

General in RUB
(euro*)

Cultural sector

General
in RUB
(euro*)

Institutions under the Ministry of Culture

Average

Women

Federal employees

Regional and local employees

2000

1 320

2 223
(85.5)

1 229
(47)

1 050

937

1 812

978

2002

1 967

4 360
(132)

2 889
(87)

2 439

2 319

4 358

2 260

2004

2 602

6 832
(181)

4 289
(113)

3 656

3 403

7 539

3 307

2006

    ...

11 070
(325)

5 886
(173)

5 886

5 498

11 497

5 368

Source:      Number of workers and salaries in institutions and organisations of the Ministry of Culture of the RF, Moscow, 2002-2007; Labour and Employment in Russia, 2003. Official edition. Moscow, 2003.
*                 Calculated on the basis of the average rate.

There is also a need to find skilled workers trained in new technologies and capable of functioning in the new economic situation. Many of those working in the cultural field are elderly and trained in the old welfare state socialist system. Attracting cultural workers, training cultural managers and administrators still remains a fundamental challenge.

Russia/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and debates

4.2.8 New technologies and cultural policies

The goals of "building an information society" in Russia are commonly proclaimed among those responsible for general information policies, though the existing infrastructure is not sufficient and relatively expensive for users. There is a plan to increase the number of Internet users from 24.6% in 2007 to 33.6% in 2009. The E-Russia Federal Target Programme is aimed at telecommunications development and access to public information systems, including connecting cultural institutions to the web. As a result, in 2007 all schools got computers and an Internet connection. From 2005 on, the websites of federal and regional governmental bodies and related services are improving, making cultural policies more transparent to the public.

Cultural sector involvement in the process is limited due to financial shortages and the lack of provision for culture in information society policies, but the situation gradually advances. For example, in 2004 of all 579 theatres, only 315 had e-mail and 350 had an Internet connection, of 292 publicly funded concert organisations and companies 148 had e-mail and 159 had Internet access. In 2006, those figures were relatively 404 and 424 for theatres and 181 and 187 for the concert organisations and companies.

The main space for electronic cultural development is the Russian Internet section (RuNet), where private and commercial initiatives flourish and where cultural projects are implemented with support both from the state and business. In November 2006, the "Kultura" TV channel won the national "RuNet Prize" in culture and mass media. Among the cultural institutions most involved in information technologies are research units; museums engaged in developing national networks and electronic projects (http://www.museum.ru); and major libraries and archives which are producing online catalogues supported by the E-Russia programme.

Nevertheless, the regard for paper information and documents remains high in Russia. In 2006, only 17% of all those libraries under the umbrella of the Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications, including 9% of rural ones had PCs; only 7% of all libraries supported by the Ministry and 1% of those in rural areas had an Internet connection. Those developments are very unequal across the country, e.g. in Chuvashiya Republic 50% of the libraries have PCs and 36% an internet connection.

Russia/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and debates

4.2.9 Heritage issues and policies

Heritage policies traditionally deal with movable (museums, archives and library collections) and immovable items. In many cases, land was (and will remain) the most attractive part of heritage in the process of privatisation, especially in the cities. The privatisation of historical buildings and attached land, though not fully legal, was generally "on hold" since the 1990s, except at the local level where the main tendency was to privatise, ignoring or reducing heritage lists. At the upper levels of government, heritage was a matter for debate between the Ministry of Culture and other powerful Ministries, namely of Property or that of Construction, Housing, and Communal Services. A contest between the Ministry of Culture (MCMC) and powerful regional governments, e.g. the Moscow Government, sometimes has led to massive historic and cultural losses which one can easily witness e.g. in Moscow. Recently, safeguarding historic and cultural milieu in St-Petersburg also became a matter of heated debate.

Preservation activities are developed within the Federal Target Programmes (FTPs), e.g. the Preservation and Development of Architecture in Historical Cities (2002-2010). In 2006, the MCMC proposed an inter-ministerial strategy for developing a system of the sights, historic and cultural reserves, and museum reserves until 2015 and elaborated the Preservation of Intangible Cultural Heritage of the Peoples of Russia, 2009-2013 FTP. However, there is a permanent lack of funds to restore monuments while major actions in the field are linked to particular events, e.g. in 2008, a huge investment in renovation of citadels in the cities of Astrakhan' and Novgorod the Great is planned in relation to the cities' anniversaries.

The general administrative reform also influenced the system of heritage protection by changing the existing division of responsibilities between governmental levels. The Regions gained more rights including the establishment of their own inventories of heritage monuments to be preserved; e.g. in 2006, the Yamalo-Nenets Duma adopted a Regional Law on Culture which introduced special articles on the preservation of the cultural heritage of the Northern indigenous peoples. However, in many cases a transfer of preservation duties to municipal and local levels beginning from 1 January 2008 has not been provided with adequate funding.

Since 2002, the Russian Government proposed privatisation as a means to prevent the ruin of the built heritage and reductions in the list of monuments financed via the federal budget. On the 1st January 2008 the legal statements on privatisation of heritage came into force while the general concern about the fact that there are no instruments to guarantee that the new owners will properly preserve or provide public access to such heritage items is still actual. The heritage items proposed for privatisation earlier turned out to be not that attractive and the pace and volume of privatisation in the cultural sector was far less than expected (about 250 objects).

Russia/ 4.2 Recent policy issues and debates

4.2.10 Gender equality and cultural policies

The cultural sector is mainly feminised.

Table 5:     The share of working women by sector, in %, 1980-2006

Field

1980

1990

2000

2002

2003

2004

2006

Health, physical culture, welfare

85

83

81

80

81

80

-

Culture and arts

70

71

69

73

70*

69*

74*

Education

78

79

80

79

81

81

-

Total

51

51

48

49

49

49

-

Source:      Labour and Employment in Russia, 2005. Moscow, 2005, p.69; Russian Statistical Yearbook 2004. Moscow, 2004.  p. 82.
*                 Within the MCMC organisations this indicator equaled 73%.

Salaries and remuneration in the fields of culture and the arts are almost the lowest, which is one of the main reasons why the profession is feminised. In 1999, there were 554 000 and in 2006 590 202 women employed within the system of the culture Ministry. In 2004, the number of women working in the arts and culture sector was 782 000, while the average "female" salary in the sector (3 791 RUB) was lower than the corresponding "male" salary (5 505 RUB) (see also http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 4.2.7). This trend correlates to the general employment situation.

Although the state apparatus is on the whole feminised (e.g. at the federal level, women made up 77% of the staff in 2005), decision-makers are principally male (about 80% of the "higher" and "chief" administrative staff at the federal level).

At the same time, higher professional education in culture and the arts is still very popular among women: in 1998/1999 over 53% of the total student body and 66% of the student body in arts and film was female. In 2005/2006 the figures rose slightly to 57% and 74% respectively.

Russia/ 4. Current issues in cultural policy development and debate

4.3 Other relevant issues and debates

The involvement of the Russian Orthodox Church and other religious organisations in cultural matters is intensifying and their influence and participation in public debates on modern Russian culture is growing. Some practical tensions emerge with regard to the questions of maintaining and using cultural monuments and artistic objects, which were recently given back to the religious communities. A search for balanced interrelations becomes an important issue at all levels of cultural policy making (see also http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 8.3.2).

Russia/ 5.1 General legislation

5.1.1 Constitution

According to the Constitution of the Russian Federation, that came into force in December 1993, "The Russian Federation - Russia, is a democratic, federal, legal state with a republican form of government", where rights and freedoms of the individual are proclaimed to be of the highest value. The following Articles are particularly relevant:

Russia/ 5.1 General legislation

5.1.2 Division of jurisdiction

The breakdown of cultural competence in the Russian Federation is generally determined in the Constitution as follows.

According to the federal Laws on General Principles of Organising Legislatures (Representative) and Executive Authorities of the Subjects of the Russian Federation and on General Principles of Organising Local Self-Government in the Russian Federation adopted in 2003 and gradually coming into force, cultural competence was re-distributed among the levels of government and stated in the Basic Law on Culture as follows:

Federal (national) level:

Regional level

Local level

Autonomy is granted to regional and local actors (municipalities) in all fields including culture and is to be fully enforced in 2008. The Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications proposed improvements to strengthen the responsibilities of regional administrations in realising state cultural policies and has proceeded to work out and conclude related agreements.

Russia/ 5.1 General legislation

5.1.3 Allocation of public funds

The level of state funding for culture in Russia was determined in the statements of the Basic Law on Culture - that is 2% of the federal budget and 6% of regional ones (media not included). It exemplifies a welfare state illusion of the early 1990s, which has never been enforced and was recently deleted from the Law.

There are three budget levels in cultural funding, while financial responsibilities of each are set by the above mentioned laws and the Budget Code. At the federal level, current spending is actually determined by the Laws on the Federal Budget and by the Federal Target Programmes related to culture (see http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 2.3 and http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 6.1). At the regional and municipal levels, the new laws changed the former division of resources in related budgets, thus putting public cultural funding in jeopardy (see http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 6.3).  

In the 2000s a new system of public grants and awards was developed in Governmental Acts and Presidential Decrees providing for another type of funding for cultural affairs.

Russia/ 5.1 General legislation

5.1.4 Social security frameworks

There are no specific advantages for artists as far as social security is concerned. As during the Socialist past, most of the artists are employed by state institutions or receive state commissions, though the newly gained freedom of "liberal" professions partly deprived them of former security.

Efforts have been made to support artists in their old age, from individual life-long Presidential grants for the prominent artists or stipendiums of regional governments to special schemes for those members of artists' unions, as indirect social support is a traditional aspect of their activities (see http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 8.1.3). The latter have the right to organise their own employment services and special funds supporting those unemployed.

For more information, see our Status of Artists section. 

Russia/ 5.1 General legislation

5.1.5 Tax laws

Overall, the new Taxation Code (1998-2000) has eliminated almost all deductions on principal, which is regarded as contradictory to the very core policies of cultural support. In that sense, it does not support cultural production, nor does it encourage investment or support from the private sector. Legal incentives for public-private partnerships remain at a low level, despite a special Law on Charity and Charitable Organisations (1995), which has proved to be totally ineffective. Another problem for the sector is that charity and volunteering are primarily connected with help to those most socially vulnerable and not with cultural actions.

A draft Law on Maecenats and Maecenat Activities has been under discussion for several years without any result. According to the Medium-term Programme of Social and Economic Development of the Russian Federation (2006-2008), the Russian Government plans to initiate relative improvements and additions to general legislation as a replacement for the draft law.

There are special deductions for the materials used by artists in the Taxation Code. Cultural institutions are tax exempt for restoration works on cultural monuments and for maintenance. The government also recognised prospects for revoking a tax on income earned by cultural or scientific institutions as a result of professional activities.

Russia/ 5.1 General legislation

5.1.6 Labour laws

Employment is regulated by the general Labour Code, including minimum wages for those working in the "public sector", although it does not regulate freelance work or self-employment. However, the bulk of cultural workers and artists are somehow employed in state institutions (98% in 2002), or are members of creative unions (which is equal to employment under the terms of paying membership fees).

Some clauses in the Labour Code regulate participation of children in the creation and usage of art works, as well as artists' work at night, on holidays and festival days. In 1993, special legal provisions were made for outstanding creative workers employed in the state institutions and gave directors the power to determine their salary without limitations. In 1994, and in 1996, special Federal Government Acts established a minimum rate of remuneration for filmmakers, artists, writers and others. Creative workers employed in state funded institutions and those working in mass media receive salaries, honoraria and fees.

For more information, see our Status of Artists section. 

Russia/ 5.1 General legislation

5.1.7 Copyright provisions

Generally, author's rights are regarded as a particular form of intellectual property. New and stricter regulations were introduced 1 January 2008 in the Fourth Part of the Civil Code that replaced the Law on Author's Rights and Neighboring Rights (1993) which regulates the relationship between authors and users of their work. Author's rights apply to works of science, literature and art, regardless of their purpose, quality and means of expression, both to published and unpublished works in any form, including derivative works (translations, music arrangements, etc.).

In the 1990s, a new copyright system was developed which was nearer to the droit d'auteur tradition and harmonised with European and international regulations, especially in matters concerned with new technologies in the arts, in communication and dissemination. The list of authors protected by the law was also extended to collaborators on collective works: scriptwriters, film directors, producers of audio recordings, performers, etc. Russia became a signatory to the Geneva (of 1952, 1971), Rome (1961) and Berne Conventions. Documents on joining the WIPO Performance and Phonograms Treaty and WIPO Copyright Treaty are under elaboration.

Joining the WTO puts forward restrictions in applicating legislation. The Customs services supervise trans-border circulation of intellectual property, which is also unclearly regulated by the Law on Foreign Trade. Sentences pronounced in the courts for violations of intellectual property rights are mainly suspended, which cannot stop criminals. In September 2006, the State Duma passed a law introducing harsher punishments on those found guilty of violating intellectual property rights.

Russia/ 5.1 General legislation

5.1.8 Data protection laws

The Laws on Personal Data Protection (2006) and On Information, Informatisation and Protection of Information (2006) were adopted following the ratification (2005) of the related Council of Europe Conventions and introduced obligatory protection of personal data disposed of by all the institutions. These laws concern cultural institutions as well but are not extended to archival stocks; they will not be fully enforced until 2010.

Russia/ 5.1 General legislation

5.1.9 Language laws

The equality of different languages and the rights of minorities to use their original language was detailed in a special Law on Languages of the Peoples of the RSFSR, adopted during Soviet times and amended in 1998. The Law on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (1999) includes clauses supporting the usage of related languages (see also http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 5.3.10). In 2005, the Law on the State Language of the Russian Federation was adopted which emphasizes the special role of the Russian language as a means of national communication.

In 2001, the Russian Federation signed the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and since 2005, its clauses are discussed within the special inter-ministerial working group. The decision-makers acknowledge that its ratification will introduce important modifications to the systems of education, justice, administration and mass media. Some are troubled by the implications and see the ratification as undermining tolerance and even the unity of Russia by abating the Russian language. 

Russia/ 5.2 Legislation on culture

In 2000, legislation on culture was defined as a separate legal branch. Nevertheless, it was widely debated whether the overall legal system should be based on general laws (namely Land, Labour, Taxation, Customs Codes, etc.) or sector specific legislation, such as the cultural sector. The former approach now prevails, with provisions for future amendments. Thus, a number of general regulations and laws (which mention "particularities" regarding artists' legal status) established the legal and normative basis for the entire cultural field. International conventions and other regulations adopted by the Russian Federation fill in the blind spots and improve the federal legislation. Division of the jurisdiction (see http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 5.1.2) produces a two level regulation system for the cultural sector, in which federal legal statements can serve as a framework or be interpreted as recommendations.

The Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications has the competence to draft related laws; it also produces secondary legislation and plans to introduce a system of cultural standards. Since the 1990s, all the members of the Russian Federation developed their own cultural legislation as well, which sometimes differed from the federal one. This situation produced a problem of harmonisation with federal laws and of developing regional legislation on culture with priorities given to local issues. All this resulted in an uneven cultural situation within territories (correlating to differences in economic development). Implementation practices remain poor in general and criticism of good laws and bad juridical practices is common.

At the federal level, most legal acts were adopted in the 1990s and became inconsistent with the fast pace at which Russia's society is changing. The second reason for legal improvements was the general administrative reform, which is why discussion of new laws and novellas (new legal statements) became routine. For example, the Basic Law of the Russian Federation on Culture (1992) was produced as a sort of "cultural constitution" on human and cultural rights and liberties, and the rights of ethnic groups and minorities in the cultural sphere. It determines the state's responsibilities with regard to culture and arts and sets out cultural policy principles. Out of its 62 Articles, 24 were improved and 9 revoked.

In the early 2000s, there were efforts to produce a special legal framework for artists. A Law on Creative Workers in Literature and Arts and on their Creative Unions has twice passed through the Parliament and has been twice declined by the President, as it was perceived to provide privileges and exemptions from existing laws. The following three laws regulate the status of creative unions and other public organisations of artists based on their professional activities within the particular art sector:

In addition, there are acts of a more general character which have yet to be mentioned, e.g. the Law on Advertising (adopted 2006, full enforcement expected in 2008), which regulates the field more strictly, puts limitations on advertising in mass media and particularly on TV (amendments to the law in 2007 lower advertising time from 12 to 8 minutes per hour); and limits the use of cultural institutions and heritage objects in advertising. The Law on Formation and Use of Endowment by the Non-commercial Organisations, accepted in 2006, provided a legal basis for funding NGOs, however real introduction of such new practices requires time.

Russia/ 5.3 Sector specific legislation

5.3.1 Visual and applied arts

Designers and visual artists' activities are regulated by general laws while the relations of the latter with authorities concerning their rights to keep their studios or exposition halls, acquisitions of art works, etc. are regulated on the basis of special juridical acts of ministerial, regional or local level and via their professional organisations. In the 1990s, special governmental acts were produced on state protection and support for folk crafts as a form of cultural industry. In 1999, the Law on Folk Arts and Crafts was adopted in support of their development within the market economy.

Russia/ 5.3 Sector specific legislation

5.3.2 Performing arts and music

Theatre workers were most successful in lobbying for their professional and social interests and were first to receive support from the Ministry of Culture on the basis of special governmental acts, e.g. the Act on State Support for Theatre Art in the Russian Federation (1999), which included special statements on funding of state and municipal theatres. It is expected that the Law on Autonomous Organisations is to be first applied to theatres and performing companies, giving them more independence in disposing of income.

Russia/ 5.3 Sector specific legislation

5.3.3 Cultural heritage

The legal and normative basis for cultural heritage was established by the following laws:

The State Code of Particularly Valuable Objects of Cultural Heritage of the Peoples of the Russian Federation lists the first priority heritage objects in order to protect them from financial cuts and privatisation.

The Law of 2002 includes special clauses for privatising or for the already privatised objects of cultural heritage, together with the related rights and responsibilities of the proprietors. However, privatisation was suspended till 1 January 2008 as provisions needed for a planned transition to heritage privatisation were not developed yet. The law was always praised for its content, but was very ineffective until 2006, because of the gaps in related secondary legislation. Active discussions and even fears among the heritage workers' community, which in its greater part is careful no to privatise heritage, are also linked to the Law on Autonomous Organisations (2006), the aim of which is to give another impetus to desetatisation in the socio-cultural sector.

The law on displaced cultural objects (1998) is used as a basis for laws on particular restitutions, e.g. of the books of the Sárospatak Calvinist College (2006). The corresponding acts on restitution of the Marienkirche stained glass to Germany and of the Egyptian documents to the Austrian National Library is under elaboration.

There are additional acts which regulate the licensing, restoration, the antiquarian trade and other matters of heritage aimed at preservation and recording. In October 2004, land legislation was improved in order to give churches and monasteries a possibility to privatise their land or to use it without any charge. In 2006, mandatory "open lists" were introduced for all those practicing archeological excavations.

Russia/ 5.3 Sector specific legislation

5.3.4 Literature and libraries

The Law on Libraries (1994) and on Statutory Deposit of Documents (1994), the latter also concerned with audiovisual products, were adopted in times of severe crisis in cultural institutions and weakness of legal enforcements. That is why the latter was also ignored for almost a decade by some publishers; all these problems resulted in gaps in National Library collections of that time. The statutory deposit is also given to the Sate Fund of Television and Radio Programmes, State Film Fund, Russian State Film and Photo Archives, and the Russian State Audio Archives. Despite efforts by the creative writing community, there are no public lending rights imposed by legislation. The legislation on e-libraries is under elaboration.

Russia/ 5.3 Sector specific legislation

5.3.5 Architecture and environment

Legal acts in the field were established in the 1990s including the following laws:

Those laws addressing particular reserves and other preserved items were also aimed at protecting cultural and natural milieu from distortions and ruin. The issues concerned with preservation of historical landscapes, regulation of protective zones and regimes of preserved territories are dealt with in the Land Code, to which all of the city planning documentation in the cultural heritage preservation offices must adhere. Renovation and restoration works on cultural heritage and immovable objects are placed on the list of licensed activities.

Russia/ 5.3 Sector specific legislation

5.3.6 Film, video and photography

The Law on State Support for the Cinema of the Russian Federation was adopted in 1996. It gave temporary advantages to the film industry (tax and custom duty exemption, for example) that were never fully put into practice. However, it did provide about 80% of non-budget financing. Tax incentives for private investors expired in 2001 and were substituted with public funding. State funding is provided for films that obtain National Film status, which means that all its materials and statutory copies are submitted to the State Film Fund. A dissemination license is also provided after giving a copy to the state depository. Amendments to the law, adopted in February 2006, eliminate the requirement for the Ministry of Culture and Mass Communication to keep the State Register of Cinematographic Organisations.

In 2001, two Presidential Decrees were issued in order to restructure film production and film distribution through turning film studios and other related enterprises into joint stock companies. An important issue for the sector is that remuneration for production and distribution is regulated by special governmental acts, which underpinned the key financial role of film producers.

Russia/ 5.3 Sector specific legislation

5.3.7 Culture industries

General laws concerned with production and commercial activities regulate the culture industries, including those dealing with issues of public morality, control over the dissemination of pornographic material, etc. Specific legislation in the field firstly regulates legal production, dissemination and screening, licensing and registration of producers. This is all aimed at fighting piracy and at protection of the market against illegal production which is of high demand because of its lower prices. All that prove ineffective (see also http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 5.1.7). Despite multiple efforts by the creative community, there are no blank tape levies enforced by legislation.

Russia/ 5.3 Sector specific legislation

5.3.8 Mass media

The Law on the Mass Media, adopted in 1991 and recently amended, was an important step towards freedom of information and speech, but had few mechanisms to enforce its goals. In 1995, a special Law on State Support for Media and Book Publishing and a Law on Economic Support for Regional (Municipal) Newspapers were adopted.

On the whole, one can witness more public criticism towards the mass media (e.g. towards incorrect news reports on acts of terror) and considerations of relatively limiting legal acts. Developments in general regulations and resulting conflicts make revision of legislation on mass media a contentious issue. On the other hand, journalists are struggling for freedom of speech and of disseminating information and blame the government for exercising censorship. However, the Public Chamber, in its 2006 report, evaluated the Law on the Mass Media as a liberal achievement and insisted on its proper enforcement.

Self-regulation in a charter form has become more and more important in the field and there is a growing concern among broadcasters, publishers and journalists with a public mission. The Russian President has encouraged self-regulation of the Internet community. In 2005-2006, juridical practice in the field developed and the trial of media or journalists became a more usual means for settling conflicts, including numerous claims of defamation.

Russia/ 5.3 Sector specific legislation

5.3.9 Legislation for self-employed artists

In Soviet times, membership in a professional union was equal to employment for artists and gave them all related rights. In modern Russia, citizens are free to be employed or not while in the Labour Code self-employment is not addressed. On the whole, many of those who were self-employed constituted a part of the "shadow economy" in the 1990s (and in some way remain there still) as their revenues were hidden.

For more information, see our Status of Artists section. 

Russia/ 5.3 Sector specific legislation

5.3.10 Other areas of relevant legislation

The so called "ethnic-national policy" has been a matter of legal regulation since the 1990s. The Law on National Cultural Autonomy (1996) provides the legal basis for the diasporas' cultural self-organisation and gives special opportunities to preserve cultural heritage and develop cultural activities for all ethnic groups, especially those not having territorial-administrative units. Special chapters of the law deal with the right to preserve, develop, and use a native language, including preservation and development of ethnic cultures. According to the law, the National Cultural Autonomy (NCA) is a particular type of public organisation which can be established by an ethnic group. It can be a local, regional or all-Russia level organisation and their socially important projects can receive state funding. An NCA also has the right to establish educational institutions and to produce textbooks and other training materials. The main criticism of the law is concerned with its unclear and vague clauses, together with uncertainty over governmental obligations. This issue could be partly improved by parallel use of international regulations.

There is also a system of regulations protecting indigenous peoples' rights. These are the Law on the Rights Guaranteed for Indigenous Peoples (1999); the Law on General Principles of Organising Communes among the Indigenous Peoples of the North, Siberia and of the Far East of the RF (2000); and the Law on the Territories of Traditional Land Use among the Indigenous Peoples of the North, Siberia and of the Far East of the RF (2000), which protect their cultures, languages, way of life and environment.

Russia/ 6. Financing of culture

6.1 Short overview

At the end of the 1990s, public cultural expenditure in Russia totally depended on the general state of the national economy. In 1997, financing for culture reached only 12% of the approved culture budget, which deprived many cultural projects of all financing and reduced most budgets to below the minimum level. In 1999, state financing for culture was fully allocated for the first time, though the level of state cultural funding never correlated with the statements in the Basic Law on Culture (namely 2% of the federal budget and 6% of regional ones, with media not included): the federal budget allocations for culture (media excluded) were kept at the level of about 0.6%. In 2007, the share was increased to 0.87% but later it is planned to diminish it gradually.

In the Culture of Russia (2006-2010) Federal Target Programme, 85% of the financing (54.3 billion RUB) is derived from the federal budget, while capital investment makes up 73% of that share. Renovation of the Bolshoi Theatre, the Russian State Library, and the Moscow Conservatory, together with the Mariinsky and Alexandrinsky Theatres in St. Petersburg (five particularly valuable heritage institutes, of the 300 included in the FTP), accounts for 63% of the budgetary share in capital investment.

A system of state grant-giving and governmental awards is swiftly developing (see http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 8.1.2); it is used to accumulate money and to support the most prominent cultural institutions, companies, orchestras and their activities. In 2006, the total of the state grants given by the federal administration was 1 857 million RUB. Another innovation is gradual transition from institutional to normative per capita funding for state and municipal services, which could be extended to the cultural sector. 

Private spending on culture evolved at the same pace as the general economic situation; it diminished by 1998 and has since gradually increased as the economy improved.

Table 6:     Spending on cultural activities and goods, % of total household spending, 1990-2006

 

1990

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

TV sets, radio receivers, objects for leisure and entertainment

5.0

3.2

3.2

3.4

4.4

4.6

5.2

4.5

Cultural institutions' services

0.9

0.4

1.0

1.1

1.4

1.7

2.1

2.1

Source:      Russia in Figures, 2007. Official edition. Moscow, 2007.

The consumer-price index in the cultural sector correlates to the general rate. It slightly decreases in the services of cultural institutions and in excursion services. It equaled, relatively, 132.8 and 118.2 in 2002 and 117.7 and 115.5 in 2005. In May 2006, the government introduced a new method of calculating a minimal set of consumer goods that includes spending on cinema, theatre and museum tickets, which make up 5% of total expenditure on services.

Russia/ 6. Financing of culture

6.2 Public cultural expenditure per capita

The estimated average public cultural expenditure (mass media excluded) per capita was at RUB 115 in 2000 and at RUB 165 in 2001, which corresponded relatively to 0.23% and 0.26% of per capita GDP.

State funding allocations are determined according to the institutional principle, while a per capita indicator is not officially used. When calculated, it gives astonishing results. In 2005, the Russian President referred to the figures as follows: in the Ingush Republic, the per capita expenditure is 3 RUB, while in the Khanty-Mansii Autonomous District, it equals 5 000 RUB. One of the political targets is to even the situation around the country. According to prior expert estimations (2001), in 58 out of the 89 "units" of the Russian Federation, cultural expenditure per capita was below the national average.

Russia/ 6. Financing of culture

6.3 Public cultural expenditure broken down by level of government

Table 7:     Public cultural expenditure: budget spending by level of government, in billion RUB, 2002-2005

 

Culture, arts and mass media

Culture and arts

Mass media

Level of government

Total

% share
of total

Total

% share
of total

Total

% share
of total

Federal

2002

20.1

30

10.2

20.5

9.9

53

2004

28.1

29

16.8

23

11.3

48

2005

47.6

30.9

...

...

...

...

Regional*

2002

47.1

70

38.4

79.5

8.7

47

2004

69.6

71

57.5

77

12.1

52

2005

106.2

69.1

...

...

...

...

 Municipal

 

-

-

-

-

-

-

Other public authorities

 

-

-

-

-

-

-

TOTAL

2002

67.2

100

48.6

100

18.6

100

2004

97.7

100

74.3

100

23.4

100

2005

153.8

100

...

...

...

...

Source:      Rossijsky statistichesky ezhegodnik  2003-2006. Ofits. izd. Moskva, 2004-2006. (State Committee of the Russian Federation for Statistics: Russian Statistical Yearbook 2003-2006, Official edition. Moscow, 2004-2006).
*                 Consolidated regional budget in which the average share of municipal culture and arts budgets generally makes up about 45% of public cultural funding.

A search for efficiency occupies the main debates on cultural funding. New inter-budget relations (see http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 5.1.3) made co-funding practices more sophisticated and, at the same time, problematic. The decline of federal funding for culture and arts in real terms because of permanent inflation which is higher than its official rate has been overcome. Funding for the mass media has also relatively declined, but the government plans to increase it in 2007, in view of the forthcoming elections.

Public cultural expenditure in consolidated regional budgets averaged 2.26% in 2001 and 2.16% in 2002. In 2000, among the consolidated budgets of the Federal "units", the share of public cultural expenditure varied e.g. from 1.14% in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous District to 4.82% in the Komi-Permyak Autonomous District. In 2002, relative figures were 1.04% and 2.34% while the maximum was 3.78% (Omsk).

Russia/ 6. Financing of culture

6.4 Sector breakdown

A breakdown of Russian federal funding in the cultural sector, by budget categories, is included in Table 9.

Table 8:     Public cultural expenditure: Federal Budget spending by sector, in million RUB, 2005-2007

Sector

2005

2006

2007

Culture, cinematography and mass media

39 173.1

51 248.1

67 804.7

Culture

16 901.1

30 720.5

35 757.7

Cinematography

2 686.2

3 106.5

3 684.4

Broadcasting

10 918.3

12 623.5

20 704.3

Periodicals and publishing

387.2

715.7

3 345.0

Applied scientific research

173.3

225.9

287.0

Other

8 107.0

3 856.0

4 026.3

TOTAL Federal Budget spending

3 047 929.3

4 270 114.7

4 794 455.2

% of TOTAL

1.29

1.20

1.41

Source:      Laws on the Federal Budget for 2005, 2006 and 2007.

The following table shows the relative weight and importance of some fields for the central, regional and local levels in 2003.

Table 9:     State cultural expenditure: budget spending in 2003 (in billion RUB)

Field / Domain / Sub-domain

Direct
expenditure

Transfers
and subventions

Total

% Total

 

C

R

L

C

R

L

C

R

L

C

R

L

Cultural goods

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cultural Heritage

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Historical Monuments

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Museums

 

2.42

0.75

 

...

...

 

2.98

0.87

 

 

 

Archives

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Libraries

 

2.39

5.62

 

...

0.04

 

2.72

5.90

 

 

 

Cultural houses

...

0.84

11.76

...

...

0.07

...

1.00

13.66

0

7

93

Arts

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Visual Arts

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Performing arts

 

6.31

0.63

 

0.04

...

 

7.42

0.72

 

 

 

Music

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Theatre and music theatre

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Circus

 

0.02

...

 

...

...

 

0.02

...

 

 

 

Other

 

2.88

3.94

 

0.58

0.10

0.01

4.87

4.34

0

53

47

Cinema

 

-

-

 

0.40

0.43

2.05

0.40

0.43

72

13

15

Total

 

14.86

22.70

 

1.05

0.65

14.19

19.41

25.92

24

33

43

Media

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Books and press

 

0.09

0.08

 

2.63

1.21

0.61

2.75

1.32

13

59

28

Books

 

-

-

 

0.24

0.01

 

0.24

0.01

 

 

 

Press

 

0.09

0.08

 

2.39

1.20

 

2.51

1.31

 

 

 

Audio, Audiovisual and Multimedia

 

0.10

0.04

 

0.78

0.02

0.32

0.88

0.06

25

70

5

Radio and Television

 

0.79

0.39

 

3.09

0.56

11.60

3.97

1.02

70

24

6

Total

 

0.98

0.51

 

6.50

1.79

12.53

7.60

2.40

55

34

11

Other

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Interdisciplinary

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Socio-cultural

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cultural relations abroad

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Administration*

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Educational activities

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Not allocable by domain

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Total

 

15.84

23.21

 

7.55

2.44

26.72

27.01

28.32

32

33

35

Source:      Ministry of Finance. Report on Federal budget execution on 1 January 2004: http://www.minfin.ru (from the screen in August 2004).
Notes:       C = Central level; R = Regional level; L = Local level.

Russia/ 7. Cultural institutions and new partnerships

7.1 Re-allocation of public responsibilities

In the 1990s, despite numerous declarations outlining new priorities, the survival of the network of traditional cultural institutions and monuments remained most important. Support for these institutions drained the largest part of the public budget for culture, even when financing was reduced to the payment of salaries.

Re-allocation of public responsibilities for cultural institutions is a result of a general administrative reform. Another trend is for the federal government to withdraw financing from cultural institutions, to encourage their desetatisation or autonomy and to put emphasis on entrepreneurial activities in the cultural sector. The Law on Autonomous Organisations (2006) suggests that there is a move towards so called "soft privatisation" e.g. of museums, which is strongly opposed by museum workers. 

Since 2000, the income of the cultural sector institutions has grown about 5 times, though its increase was permanently limited by the low purchasing power of the population. The experts estimate that the share of non-budget funding increased in some institutions (especially federal ones) by 30% mainly due to the growth of ticket prices and entrance fees, the substitution of free cultural services by paid ones, sub-leasing, touring abroad or participating in particular funded events. Revising public responsibilities in the cultural sector and converting state cultural institutions into non-commercial NGOs, or even commercially oriented ones, is seen by the government as a means to progress their development.

Table 10:   Earnings of cultural institutions and organisations within the Ministry of Culture, 2002-2006 (in million RUB)

 

            Total

Budget funding

Income

Other

Year

2002

2004

2006

2002

2004

2006

2002

2004

2006

2002

2004

2006

Theatre

9 141

14 062

22 474

5 944

9 712

16 549

2 763

4 249

4 659

434

101

102

Concert organisations

2 692

4 738

7 675

1 890

3 471

5 763

680

905

1 456

122

362

418

Libraries

8 965

12 739

18 935

8 514

12 097

18 219

304

610

683

147

31

31

Museums

9 638

13 296

19 475

6 873

9 958

15 113

1 879

1 887

4 200

886

1 451

160

Cultural houses

14 467

21 464

31 789

12 900

19 280

28 895

1 238

2 118

2 774

329

66

118

Source:      Statistical data of the MCMC, 2003-2007.

At the same time many public cultural institutions are still lacking innovative strategies (partly as a result of continual reliance on institutional basis in financing).

Russia/ 7. Cultural institutions and new partnerships

7.2 Status/role and development of major cultural institutions

Statistical data on cultural institutions represent only the state owned or public ones and in some cases those collections which are officially included into the Museum Collection of the Russian Federation. However, there are independent institutions, e.g. corporative museums, collections or archives, industrial enterprises' history and school museums, private theatres and companies, etc. According to expert estimations, the number of museums could be twice as many as those listed.

The scarcity of resources in the 1990es dictated a system of preference for certain kinds of institutions. The network of these institutions provides public access and is safeguarded by the Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography. The institutions holding a special legal status of "particularly valuable" obtain the highest priority from the state and are excluded from privatisation, including renowned museums, theatres, higher schools, archives and collections. Some of these - the Hermitage, the Bolshoi, the State Film Fund of the Russian Federation (Gosfilmofond), the Russian Academies of fine Arts, and of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture are presented in the federal budget with a separate entry.

Table 11:   Number of culture institutions, 1980 - 2006

Field

1980

1990

2000

2002

2004

2005

2006

Theatre

324

382

547

571

579

588

590

Circus

-

77

63

63

66

67

66

Museum

740

1 315

2 046

2 189

2 269

2 285

2 368

Cultural houses (thousand)

77.5

73.2

54.8

54.2

52.9

51.4

49.5

Public libraries (thousand)

62.1

62.6

51.2

51.0

49.9

49.5

48.3

Cinemas (thousand)

87.7

77.2

18.0

15.4

12.9

12.9

11.4 (2005)

Monuments protected by the state ('000)

-

46.0

84.9

83.6

87.7

87.8

87.8 (2005)

National Parks

0

12

35

35

35

35

 

Source:      Russian Statistical Yearbook, 2006, Official edition. Moscow, 2006; and statistical data of the Ministry of Culture, 2000-2007.

Joint responsibilities of different administrative levels concerned with cultural institutions in some cases led to confusion, which is to be cleared up under the general administrative reform. A decrease in financing the cultural sector at federal level (see http://www.culturalpolicies.net/web/icons/intern.gifchapter 6.1) could be possible only if the number of federal institutions and related activities (e.g. heritage preservation) will be somehow reduced - passed to the regional level, become autonomous or private.

Russia/ 7. Cultural institutions and new partnerships

7.3 Emerging partnerships or collaborations

Partnerships arising between public cultural institutions and private sponsors or foundations are still underdeveloped, to a certain extent owing to the absence of economic incentives (tax shelters) for sponsors and even charities. Therefore, image making, prestige and advertising are the most important motivation in fostering partnerships. In 2006, the Law on Formation and Use of Endowment by the Non-commercial Organisations was accepted though, as stated in the Report on Civil Society in Russia submitted by the Public Chamber, it is not enough yet to support the non-commercial sector.

Nevertheless, in 2003 support from charities and sponsors reached 11% of the general earnings of cultural institutions. A good example of funding modernisation is provided by the Cultural Investment Facility (CIF) that has been established within the framework of the Saint-Petersburg Economic Development Project "with the view to preserve the cultural heritage and assist a sustainable development of the city's cultural sphere" (see http://www.fisp.spb.ru/index.php?page=38&lng=en). Another example is the co-operation of the Museum Estate of Leo Tolstoy "Yasnaya Polyana" with the huge neighbouring chemical enterprise and supported by the regional administration.

The government stresses the social obligations of businesses and tends to control private investment and support for culture e.g. via signing agreements between the state administration and corporations, which is the reason why only several large companies (e.g. Interros) openly became players in the field, struggling for independence in decision-making. Smaller benefactors generally prefer private contacts and direct anonymous funding of particular needs. To improve the situation, experts propose to develop mediation between culture and business.

Russia/ 8. Support to creativity and participation

8.1 Direct and indirect support to artists

In the 1990s, both direct and indirect state support for artists had a symbolic more than a financial character, but the situation improved considerably in the early years of 2000.

Economically, artists are supported at all administrative levels via the traditional system of state commissions and purchases of art works for museums, theatres, state headquarters, etc. There are honorary degrees for artists and cultural workers that are inherited from the Soviet period (Artist of the People, Honorary Artist, Honorary Master of the Arts, Honorary Cultural Worker) providing some additional social support or privileges.

The material needs of the artistic community are also met via state supported Artists' Unions, public and private foundations, and individually. The number of festivals, competitions and awards that are backed up by state funding continues to grow, which makes the landscape more diverse.

Russia/ 8.1 Direct and indirect support to artists

8.1.1 Special artists funds

State support is partly a result of collaboration between the Artists' Unions and administration, their political involvement and the personal authority of "stars". Special funds directed to support particular professional groups and the younger generation are often organised by world-famous persons.

Funds established by renowned artists or cultural institutions in Russia and abroad (like the Vladimir Spivakov International Charity Foundation or the Hermitage Museum's Friends Society) to raise money in support of professional activities are also becoming important actors in modern cultural life. The number of foundations and institutions providing grants for cultural projects or awards continues to grow.

Russia/ 8.1 Direct and indirect support to artists

8.1.2 Grants, awards, scholarships

In the 2000s, a new grant system rapidly developed at the federal (presidential, state and ministerial grants) and regional levels (grants on behalf of the head of the territory); their importance is growing as they create opportunities to support proficient artists and aesthetic innovations. State grants and awards are given to well established and more renowned institutions, prominent artists and companies in order to support high quality productions. Public awards may have no financial component at all but may still be highly appreciated.

Since the 1990s, scholarships and long-term grants for talented children and younger people originated from both public and private sources are available. There are special state grants for beginners in literature and play writing. Today, 32 "bigger" grants for theatres, orchestras, and art higher schools are awarded by the Russian President and the government, plus 100 smaller Presidential grants (200-250 thousand RUB) are proposed for particular projects.

The following awards are presented: 15 Russian Federation Government Awards in Culture (1 million RUB each, since 2005); 15 governmental awards The Soul of Russia for amateur folk artists (100 thousand RUB each, from 2007); and 10 Russian Federation Government Awards for Print Media (1 million RUB each, since 2005). Several Russian President's Grants were also established including those for professional companies in folk music and dance (252 million RUB each year to 6 companies during 2005-2007), for theatre art (347 million RUB each year to 6 theatres and 5 theatre arts higher schools during 2006-2008), and for music (810 million RUB each year to 2 opera theatres, 2 Conservatoires, 2 symphony orchestras during 2006-2008).

Russia/ 8.1 Direct and indirect support to artists

8.1.3 Support to professional artists associations or unions

There are about 70 000 members of professional "Creative Unions" (those disposing of particular welfare oriented Funds) with regional branches, which also provide relevant forms of support. Their main tasks are to join professionals and to lobby for professional interests, to promote arts and to support the younger and older members. These unions are involved in organising prestigious competitions and artistic events, public festivities and highly remunerative political campaigns, as well as in the presentation of awards for professional activities. For professionals, they organise focal points called e.g. "House of Actors" or higher quality medical services. Temporary residencies in "Creativity Houses" at lower prices and a network of institutions providing services such as recreation are available for the unions' members.

Artists' Unions receive, through the Ministry of Culture, annual subsidies from the federal budget. The rate of these subsidies is calculated on the basis of profit taxes paid by their productive units (workshops or enterprises). This subsidy is supposed to be spent on cultural events, social support for Union members and other socially significant issues. Honors and charities are primarily important for socially vulnerable groups especially for retired, single or disabled artists.

Russia/ 8.2 Cultural consumption and participation

8.2.1 Trends and figures

In Russia, cultural consumption differs greatly in large cities and in rural areas where the cultural infrastructure is weak. The main trends in the 1990s were a drop in the number of public cultural institutions and artistic events, together with lower attendance at theatres, cinemas, philharmonic concerts. On the other hand, there was a rise in the number of television, cable and satellite channels, formerly forbidden private radio stations, and e-devices per household, jointly with the introduction of the Internet. In spite of bitter laments at "bad taste" and visibly supported protests on the part of artistic elite, the public demonstrates sustainable preferences for entertainment and pop, although ticket prices in that sector are much higher.

Table 12:   Cultural services within the structure of the services sector, % of total amount provided, 1995-2006

 

1995

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

Cultural services

1.1

1.7

1.9

2.0

2.3

2.5

2.3

2.4

Tourism and excursions

1.3

1.8

1.7

1.4

1.3

1.3

1.5

1.5

Source:      Russian Statistical Yearbook, 2006, Official Edition. Moscow, 2006.

Consumption trends are generally influenced by developments in other aspects of life, for example, an economic crisis is followed by increasing reliance on free public services (e.g. libraries) and drops in attendance rates for paid entertainment events, and vice versa. Overall attendance rates are dropping: during the last three months of 2005, 83% of Russians did not visit a theatre, museum or attend a concert and 85% had not been to the cinema. In Moscow, related figures were 64% and 66%.

Table 13:   Volume of cultural services provided per capita, 1993-2005

 

1993

1995

2000

2001

2003

2005

Cultural services (in RUB)

0.7

8.3

68.5

104.7

233.2

375.0

Source:      Russian Statistical Yearbook, 2006, Official Edition. Moscow, 2006.

Sociologists also discovered the immediate correlation between income levels and attendance frequencies.

Table 14:   Structure of household spending (% of total spending, COICOP) and number of PCs by 100 households, 2004-2005

 

Grouping according to the income level

 

i (min.)

ii 

iii

v

v (max.)

2004

2005

2004

2005

2004

2005

2004

2005

2004

2005

Cultural activities
and leisure

2.5

2.7

3.1

3.7

4.2

5.3

6.6

8.1

8.3

8.7

Education

0.5

0.6

1.3

1.1

1.7

2.0

2.1

2.3

1.8

1.9

Healthcare

1.8

1.9

2.0

2.1

2.6

2.4

2.2

2.7

2.5

2.5

Alimentary goods (food)

54.2

51.8

50.0

47.3

45.0

40.8

35.5

33.4

26.3

23.8

Number of PCs

7

10

11

15

17

25

30

39

31

34

Source:      Russian Statistical Yearbook, 2005, 2006, Official editions. Moscow, 2006.

Monitoring Internet usage also supports the correlation between income levels and regularity and volume of use, while the age and gender differences are slowly but surely smoothed away. There were approximately 20 million Runet users older then 12 (in the first half of 2006), 29% of which live in the Central Federal Cluster, and their average age was 31. The most popular searches were for information (85% of users), loading (75%), and communication (56%).

The situation for museums and libraries is more complex. Although the number of libraries, during the 1990s, decreased as well as reading activities, in the 2000s library attendance rates remained almost stable. This can be explained by the prohibitive prices of new books, especially of scientific, reference editions, textbooks and periodicals and by formation of regular library users such as students, specialists or reading lovers.

A survey analysing leisure preferences among the rural population was undertaken in 2003 in Karelia Republic, Pskov and Novgorod regions. The results showed the importance of cultural houses as focal and cohesive points for cultural activities in rural areas; and the popularity of public festivities and professional tour performances.

Traditionally, tourism in Russian has a cultural component and it is a growing sector, especially traveling abroad. In 2002 - 1 639 thousand tours, and in 2005 - 4 326 thousand tours, were sold, of which 775 and 2 748 thousand, respectively, were foreign tours. In 2005, only 1.7 million organised domestic tourists traveled in Russia, while 6.4 million went abroad.

Table 15:   Trends in attendance rates

Attendance trends in different cultural fields

Cinemas:

The frequency of visits dropped from 15 per annum per inhabitant in the early 1980s to 0.25 visits per year per inhabitant in 1996 and increased to an average of 0.3 in 1998-2004 and to 0.4 in 2005. In 1995, there were 80 million spectators and relatively 49 and 52 million in 2004 and 2005. 

Broadcasting:

In 2005, programmes of the state radio companies reached 96.7% of the population; 84.1% of the population had access to 3 and more TV programmes; whereas 1.4% had no access to TV translations at all.
The access to commercial radio stations increased from 43.6% in 1999 to 63% of the population in 2005. The same year, only 11.6% were reached by the "Orpheus" radio station transmitting classical music (the rural population made up 5.6% of the total) and 62.1% by the "Kultura" TV channel (of which the rural population share is 23.2%). In 2006, the viewers of the "Kultura" and "Sports" TV channels were estimated at 93 and 60 million.

Theatres:

The number of spectators dropped from almost 72.9 million in 1985 to 27.6 million in 1998 and grew slightly to 31 million in 2001. This figure decreased again in 2006 to 28.5 million, of which 13 million visited performances for children. In 2006, the total number of performances equaled 130 thousand of which 74 thousand were addressed to children.

Concerts*:

Concert visits decreased from almost 90 million in 1980 to less than 55 million in 1997 and went down to 18.9 million in 2000 and to 17.7 million in 2006; that year concerts for children reached 5 million spectators. Attendance at philharmonic concerts slowly increased from 11.3 in 2000 to 11.6 million visits in 2003 and then dropped to 11.5 in 2006. Child and youth attendance declines faster than that of adults.

Museums:

Museum visits reached a peak of 144 million in 1990 and dropped to 65.6 by 1999; rising slightly again to 75.1 million in 2002 and made up 79.2 million in 2006 (521 visits per thousand). About 41% of the latter were organised as excursions.

Cultural houses (Clubs):

The number of those involved in activities based in cultural houses rose from 4.7 million in 1996 to almost 6 million in 2000, and remained stable since, of which about 60% are village dwellers. In 2002, 7.9 million, in 2003, 8.1 million and in 2006 8.14 million events were held, of which 4.9, 5, and 5.22 million in those years were free of charge. There were 171 million paid visits to club events in 2002 and 143 in 2006, about half of paid events are film screenings but the number of spectators is declining.

Public libraries:

In 2006, 40.5% of the population was served by libraries. The number of visits raised from 462.2 million in 1995 to 474.7 million visits in 1999 and then dropped to 463 million in 2003. The number of registered users decreased from 71.8 million in 1995 to 59.6 million in 2000 and to 57.8 in 2006, while the number of visits remained stable.

Circus:

The number of spectators fell from 21.5 million in 1992 to 8.2 million in 1998 and to 6.7 in 2004. In 2006 it slightly decreased to 6.1 million.

Zoo:

The number of visitors rose from 5.7 million in 1998 to 6.9 million in 2001 and remained at the same level until 2003. In 2004, it rose to 7.1 million visits of which only about 5% were organised as excursions.

Source:      Ministry of Culture and other statistical publications, different years.
*                 Data on rock and pop music shows, etc. are not included.

Russia/ 8.2 Cultural consumption and participation

8.2.2 Policies and programmes

Due to the scarcity of resources (both on the part of the population and the state), the promotion of cultural participation is limited to specific points in several selected programmes for underprivileged social groups (children, disabled and retired persons), as well as religious and ethnic communities. Nevertheless, cultural participation especially in depressed rural areas, is undermined by general social frustration and disintegration. Development of local cultural initiatives is faced with expectations within the local community for external leaders, actors and resources.

Support for participation is most successfully realised within the context of globally recognised programmes (e.g. anniversaries of the cities of St. Petersburg and Kazan') or from the funding of important festivals (theatre, film, music, etc.), regional projects and special events. Although there is no explicit policy linking participation in cultural life to the broader issues of social development, one can see the connections in e.g. annual "Day of a City" festivals that recently became popular all around the country and during which local and regional authorities organised rich cultural programmes promoting local values and achievements.

There are programmes aimed at developing particular types of cultural activities or halting their decline. The Federal Agency for Print and Mass Communications, together with the Russian Book Union, has proposed the National Programme for Support and Development of Reading, which is aimed at advancement of reader's competence and re-establishment of reading as a mainstream activity, especially for the younger generation. The programme proposes analysis of reading preferences, promotion of reading in the mass media, competitions and festivals organised all over the country.

Russia/ 8.3 Arts and cultural education

8.3.1 Arts education

After the governmental reform in 2004, responsibility for professional education institutions (and research ones) became a point of contention between the Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications (MCMC) and the Ministry of Education and Science. The MCMC lobbies for the preservation of the higher school system within the cultural sector, stating that the unique national system of proficient artistic training, beginning from childhood to adult age, and based on a selection of the most gifted youth, could be destroyed by introducing general higher education standards or joining the Bologna process.

The professional arts education system in Russia (and the Soviet Union) used to be academic in the best sense of the word. The network of state music, ballet and fine arts schools for children, conservatories and specialised higher education institutions has survived, despite a scarcity of budget resources and low salaries for teachers. There has been ageing and partial emigration of the best teachers and professors due to high demand abroad, especially for music and ballet teachers. On the other hand, new courses are being introduced into professional training, e.g. to include mastering new media and audio-visual technologies. Students can study computer arts at a state high school or in a private institution. Since 2002, the number of graduates from state higher education institutions in culture and arts surpassed that of 1990.

Table 16:   Number of students in arts and film in state and municipal organisations, 1991-2006

Years

1991/92

2000/01

2001/02

2002/03

2003/04

2004/05

2006/06

Specialised
secondary schools

50 500

55 400

55 400

55 800

56 000

55 400

55 000

Higher education
institutions

21 700

39 300

51 500

55 300

57 900

62 200

62 000

Source:      Russian Statistical Yearbook 2006, Official edition. Moscow, 2006.

Private initiatives have made artistic education both diverse and accessible not only for the most talented students, however, it is expensive. The number of Art Schools, together with the introduction of artistic disciplines in the curricula, expanded at all levels. School-age children also have access to courses in computer science, digital arts or multimedia designed especially for them. These developments create a generation gap in e-literacy and age-limited cultural milieu. Artistic and cultural education of both gifted and disabled children is supported by the Children of Russia Federal Target Programme, including the supply of facilities and devices, grant giving, stipends and awards, organisation of festivals, competitions, etc.

Russia/ 8.3 Arts and cultural education

8.3.2 Intercultural education

Recent developments in education were influenced by increased migration and by a growing ethnic self-awareness. On the one hand, according to the Law on National Cultural Autonomies, a lot of schools based on ethnic principles were established, which actually lead to isolation of children and lower training standards. On the other hand, in Moscow, an integrative approach is being piloted. A dedicated curriculum for migrants' children has been introduced, by which, for one year, they study the Russian language and receive basic cultural knowledge on how to socialise in new milieus. Following this training, they are admitted to mainstream schools.

Some initiatives of cultural workers were also realised, e.g. the project of museum teachers on cultural diversity of the world's peoples for primary schools, which was an extension of an international project. However, these initiatives, though numerous enough, are mainly based on the personal input of cultural workers and lack a systematic approach. More often, the emphasis in arts / cultural education for children is put on the study of their own traditional and folklore culture as it is believed important for building up personal value systems and identity, for social and cultural rehabilitation, participation and activities.

A new issue under discussion is the recent introduction of an obligatory basic course on Orthodox Christianity into secondary school curricula. This course was introduced in several regions of Russia on the 1st September 2006 and is supported by the Russian Patriarch. Although the initiators of the course stressed the teaching of the religious foundations of Russian culture, and named tolerance as one of the attitudes inherent of Orthodox believers, there are strong voices of opposition from representatives of other religions and also by atheists appealing to the Constitution, which states that Russia is a secular state. The federal Ministry of Education and Science alternatively proposes to introduce a statutory course on the history of religions, while the Public Chamber in the special address (2007) underlined voluntary attendance of religious courses.

For more information, see our Intercultural Dialogue section. 

Russia/ 8.4 Amateur arts, cultural associations and community centres

8.4.1 Amateur arts

Amateur arts are the most popular activities taking place in cultural houses, in which about 67% of children and 60% of their adult users are involved (2003). Participation rates have fluctuated over the years from 6.7 million amateur artists in 1985, to 2.5 million in 1997, up to 3.5 million in 2000, and almost 4 million in 2002. The number of children involved (included in the above figures) has grown from 1.4 million in 1985 to 2.7 million in 2000 (after a sharp drop to 1.2 million in 1989-1990). In 2003, there were 3.25 million amateur artists working in cultural clubs under the Ministry of Culture umbrella.

The most popular amateur activities in 2004 were dancing (719 000 participants), choir singing (531 000) and theatre (464 000). Folk arts form an important part of amateur artistic activities and are organised by different cultural institutions e.g. museums, especially by those with folk or historic content.

Re-establishing free access to amateur creativity (and sports) for the younger generation is proclaimed to be an important task of local and regional authorities. Competitions carried out at all levels for those involved in creativity also became an important means of further developing the amateur arts and to facilitating exchanges. Special folk festivals, especially in the regions, are organised as cultural development events, which promote both identity and diversity, and achievements in the arts. Folk amateur artists will receive additional support from the implementation of the new Federal Target Programme on Preservation of Intangible Cultural Heritage of the Peoples of Russia (2009-2013).

During the transition period, the variety of amateur cultural activities expanded and now consists not only of folk and amateur arts but also of military history associations (including those e.g. practicing Viking battle art and production of relevant armaments), lovers of exotic ceremonies (e.g. Japanese tea ceremony), etc. Amateur activities for children and adults, which were free of charge before the perestroika, now charge a fee, especially when the activity requires some training, materials or costumes. "Socially important" amateur activities are usually supported by local and regional authorities and, at the federal level, also by public charities like the Russian Cultural Foundation (former Soviet Cultural Foundation).

Cultural associations are mostly informal, with the exception of some long established unions of national scale e.g. the All-Russia Choir Society.

Russia/ 8.4 Amateur arts, cultural associations and community centres

8.4.2 Cultural houses and community cultural clubs

Amateur artistic activities are concentrated in the institutions called cultural houses, the network of which covers the whole country, especially in rural areas. In Soviet times these so called "clubs" were owned by the Ministry of Culture, trade unions and enterprises. The latter both have sharply curtailed their participation in cultural matters and in 2003, 97% of these institutions were within the responsibilities of the Ministry of Culture. There were 54 836 cultural houses in 2000 and 52 592 in 2004. Their number is permanently decreasing and in 2003 about one third of all their buildings were officially recognised to be in bad condition and in need of capital repair. Almost all cultural houses need modernisation including computers, etc.

Cultural houses are of particular importance in smaller towns and villages where they are mostly located and function as community culture, entertainment centres and dance halls. 48 147 institutions in 2000, and 47 013 in 2003, were situated in rural areas. By 2004, the number of newly constructed cultural houses was sharply reduced (from those with seating capacity of 112 000 in 1990, to 9 800 in 2004). Rural clubs only had a seating capacity of 5 900. The Social Development of Rural Areas towards 2010 Federal Target Programme curtails new constructions and, at the same time, proposes the intensive development of libraries, of modern cinema screening and other facilities, and of establishing and financially supporting open-air museums and museum-reserves, which are believed to become focal points of development in depressed rural areas.

Russia/ 9. Sources and Links

9.1 Key documents on cultural policy

Statistics:

Ministerstvo Finansov RF: Otchet ob ispolnenii konsolidirovannogo byudzheta RF za 2003 god (Ministry of Finance: Federal budget of 2003 execution) http://www.minfin.ru

Ministry of Culture of the RF: Statistical publications, 2000-2007.  

Gosudarstvenny komitet RF po statistike: Rossija v tsifrach, 2003-2006. Ofits. izd. (State Committee of the RF for Statistics: Russia in Figures, 2003-2006, Official edition. Moscow, 2003-2006). Мoskva, 2003-2006.  

Gosudarstvenny komitet RF po statistike: Rossijsky statistichesky ezhegodnik, 2005. Ofits. izd. (State Committee of the RF for Statistics: Russian Statistical Yearbook, 2005, Official editions. Moscow, 2006). Moskva, 2006.  

Gosudarstvenny komitet RF po statistike: Sotsial'noe polozheniye i uroven' zhizni v Rossii, 2005. Ofits. izd. (State Committee of the RF for Statistics: Social condishns and life level in Russia,2005, Official edition. Moscow, 2006). Мoskva, 2006.  

Gosudarstvenny komitet RF po statistike: Trud i zanyatost' v Rossii, 2005. Ofits. izd. (State Committee of the RF for Statistics: Labour and Employment in Russia, 2005, Official edition. Moscow, 2006). Moskva, 2006. 

Analysis:

Butenko, I.A.; Razlogov, K.Ė. (Otv. red.): Kul'tura i kul'turnaya politika (Butenko, I.A.; Razlogov, K. Ė. (eds.): Culture and Cultural Policy. Moscow, 2000). Мoskva, 2000.  

Russian Federation: Cultural policy and cultural diversity: National Report, prep. by L.Perepelkin, K.Razlogov, T.Razmustova; DGIV/CULT /POL/trans (2002)2. - Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Cultural Policy and Action Department, 2002. - (Transversal study in cultural policy and cultural diversity).
http://www.coe.int/T/E/Cultural_Co-operation/culture/Completed_projects/Transversal/DGIV_CULT_POL_trans%282002%292_Russia_EN.PDF?L=E

Council of Europe: Cultural Policy in the Russian Federation. (European Programme of National Culture Policy Reviews). Strasbourg: Council of Europe Publishing, 1997.  

FOM: Public Opinion Foundation
http://english.fom.ru/

Otechestvennyje zapiski: Zhurnal dlya medlennogo chteniya. Moskva, 2005. № 4 (25): Tsena kultury (Culture price, in Otechestvennyje zapiski (magazine), 2005, # 4 (25).

Perepelkin, Lev (red.): Obshchestvo, kul'tura, etnichnost': issledovaniya po prikladnoi sotsialno-kulturnoi antropologuii. Moskva: Rossijsky institute kul'turologuii, 2007 (Society, culture, ethnicity: research in applied social and cultural anthropology. Moscow: Russian Institute for Cultural Research, 2007) (in print).

ROMIR Monitoring: market research company  
http://rmh.ru/en/

Fedralnoje aguentstvo po pechati i massovym kommunikatsiyam: Rossijski rynok periodicheskoi pechati: doklad. Moskva, mai 2006 (FAPMC: Russia market of periodicals: situation, trends and prospects: analytical report. Moscow, May 2006)

Sorochkin B.Yu., Rubinshtein A.Ya. Analiz mekhanizmov gosudarstvennogo finansirovaniya sfery kultury (Analysis of mechanism for state financing of culture. Moscow, 2003). Moskva, 2003 http://www.iet.ru/usaid/socialecon/analys_mech/index.htm

VCIOM: All-Russia Public Opinion Research Center
http://www.wciom.ru/?new_lang=2

Vostryakov, Lev: Regionalnaya kulturnaya politika poreformennoi Rossii: subjektnoie izmerenie. St-Petersburg, 2005 (Regional cultural policies in post-reform Russia: personal dimension).

Reference:

Wiesand, Andreas Johannes (ed.): Handbook of Cultural Affairs in Europe (Russia). Baden Baden: NOMOS, 2000.

Russian Federation in: Regional Surveys of the World. Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia, 2002. 2nd ed. Europa Publications, p. 275-396.

Russia/ 9. Sources and Links

9.2 Key organisations and portals

Cultural policy making bodies

The Russian President 
http://www.kremlin.ru/eng/

Committee for Culture of the State Duma 
http://www.duma.gov.ru/cult-tur/

Ministry of Culture and Mass Communications of the Russian Federation 
http://www.mkmk.ru

Federal Agency for Culture and Cinematography 
http://www.roskultura.ru

Federal Agency for Print and Mass Media 
http://www.fapmc.ru

Federal Archives Agency 
http://www.rusarchives.ru

Federal Service for Supervision in Mass Media, Connectivity and Preservation of Cultural Heritage 
http://www.rsoc.ru/

Ministry for Regional Development
http://www.minregion.ru/

Public Chamber of the Russian Federation
http://www.oprf.ru/

Russian Centre for International Scientific and Cultural Co-operation (ROSZARUBEZHTSENTR)
http://www.rusintercenter.ru

Professional associations

Book Publishers of Russia Association 
http://www.aski.ru/

National Association of Broadcasters 
http://www.nat.ru

Designers' of Russia Union 
http://www.rudesign.ru/

Guild of Press Publishers
http://www.gipp.ru/english/

MediaUnion
http://www.mediasoyuz.ru/engtxt/

International Arts Fund 
http://www.artfund.ru

Journalists' Union of Russia 
http://www.ruj.ru/

Theatre Union  of the Russian Federation 
http://www.stdrf.ru/

Filmmakers Union of the Russian Federation 
http://www.unikino.ru/eindex.php

Grant-giving bodies

Vladimir Potanin's Charity Fund 
http://www.fund.potanin.ru

Russian Cultural Foundation 
http://culture.ru/index.php?section=1

Interregional Charity Public Fund "New Names" 
http://www.newnames.ru/

Vladimir Spivakov International Charity Foundation
http://www.spivakov.ru/index-eng.shtml

Cultural research and statistics

Cultural Policy Institute 
http://eng.cpolicy.ru/

Centre for the Problems of Informatisation in the sphere of Culture (Centre PIC),
http://www.cpic.ru/News_eng.htm

Russian Institute for Cultural Research 
http://www.riku.ru/Eng/index.html

Russian Research Institute for Cultural and Natural Heritage 
http://heritage-institute.ru/english/gen_info.htm

Culture / arts portals

Kultura-portal 
http://www.kultura-portal.ru

Culture of Russia 
http://www.russianculture.ru/defengl.asp

Culture in Russian Regions
http://www.culturemap.net/

Archives of Russia 
http://www.rusarchives.ru/

Russian Theatre Life in Brief. Newsletter
http://www.rtlb.ru/en_home/

Culture in Vologda Oblast 
http://www.cultinfo.ru/

Museums of Russia 
http://www.museum.ru/

TV channel "Kultura" 
http://www.tvkultura.ru/

Informkultura of the Russian State Library 
http://infoculture.rsl.ru

 

The Council of Europe/ERICarts "Compendium of Cultural Policies and Trends in Europe, 9th edition", 2008